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WORKS  ISSUED  BY 


Cfje  ^afelupt  ^octetp 


ESMERALDO 

DE  SITU  ORBIS 


ISSUED  FOR  1936 


^  5*  C  fepvA...  A  aif 


COUNCIL 

OF 

THE  HAKLUYT  SOCIETY 
J  I936 


Sir  William  Foster,  C.I.E.,  President. 

The  Rioht  Hon.  Stanley  Baldwin,  P.C.,  M.P.,  Vice-President. 
Major-General  Sir  Percy  Cox,  G.C.M.G.,  G.C.I.E.,  K.C.S.I., 
Vice-President. 

Sir  Arnold  Wilson,  K.C.I.E.,  C.S.I.,  C.M.G.,  D.S.O.,  M.P., 
Vice-President. 

J.  N.  L.  Baker,  Esq. 

E.  W.  Bovill,  Esq. 

Sir  Richard  Burn,  C.S.I. 

G.  R.  Crone,  Esq. 

E.  W.  Gilbert,  Esq. 

Admiral  Sir  William  Goodhnouoh,  G.C.B.,  M.V.O. 

Vincent  T.  Harlow,  Esq.,  D.Litt. 

A.  R.  Hinks,  Esq.,  C.B.E.,  F.R.S. 

T.  A.  Joyce,  Esq.,  O.B.E. 

Prof.  A.  P.  Newton,  D.Lit. 

N.  M.  Pbnzer,  Esq. 

S.  T.  Sheppard,  Esq. 

Brigadier-General  Sir  Percy  Sykes,  K.C.I.E.,  C.B.,  C.M.G. 

Prof.  E.  G.  R.  Taylor,  D.Sc. 

Roland  V.  Vernon,  Esq.,  C.B. 

J.  A.  Williamson,  Esq.,  D.Lit. 

Edward  Heawood,  Esq.,  Treasurer. 

Edward  Lynam,  Esq.,  M.R.I.A.,  Hon.  Secretary  (British  Museum, 
W.C.). 

The  President 
The  Treasurer 
William  Lutley  Sclater 


Trustees. 


HAKLUYT  SOCIETY 


Series  II.  Vo).  LXXIX 


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SPECIMEN  PAGE  OP  THE  LISBON  MS.  OF  THE  LSMERALDO 


ESMERALDO 

DE  SITU  ORBIS 


BY 

DUARTE  PACHECO  PEREIRA 


Translated  and  Edited 


by 


GEORGE  H.  T.  KIMBLE,  M.A„ 


Lttturer  in  Geography  in  tit  University  of  Reading 

iSsTt 


qio-4 


LONDON  ' 

PRINTED  FOR  THE  HAKLUYT  SOCIETY 

1937 


Central  ARchaeoi orrr af 

'«• . fe  . 

*“  *  ^te-djfMCU S3* 


PRINTED  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


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CONTENTS 

Preface  .......  page  ix 


Introduction  ......  xi 

Select  Bibliography  .  .  .  .  .  xxxiii 

Prologue:  The  beginning  of  the  Esmeraldo  de  Situ 

Orbis  ......  i 

The  First  Book,  with  a  description  of  the  greater 

circles  and  property  of  the  earth  .  .  9 

The  Second  Book,  describing  the  discoveries  of 

King  Afonso  V  of  Portugal  .  .  .  103 

The  Third  Book,  concerning  the  discoveries  of  King 

John  II  of  Portugal  ....  139 

The  Fourth  Book,  containing  the  discoveries  of 

King  Manuel  of  Portugal  .  .  .  163 

Appendices 


I  The  Senegal-Niger-Nile  controversy  .  '.  173 

II  “There  are  other  snakes  a  quarter  of  a  league 


long” . 175 

III  The  silent  Barter  .  .  .  .  .  176 

IV  Note  on  the  Map  to  illustrate  the  Esmeraldo  de 

Situ  Orbis  ......  179 

Index  .......  185 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Specimen  Page  of  the  Lisbon  MS.  of  the  Esmeraldo 

FRONTISPIECE 

PAGE 

North-East  Africa,  from  Ptolemy’s  Geographia  to  face  16 
(Rome,  1507) 

Typical  Illustration  from  the  Roteiro  of  D.  J0A0 

de  Castro,  1541  .....  37 

(British  Museum,  Cotton  MS.  Tib.  D.  ix) 

The  North  Atlantic  Coast  on  an  Italian  Chart 

of  c.  1508  ......  65 

(British  Museum,  Egerton  MS.  2803) 

The  Middle  Atlantic  Coasts  on  an  Italian  Chart 

of  c.  1508  ......  106 

(British  Museum,  Egerton  MS.  2803) 

The  Coasts  of  West  and  South  Africa  on  an  Italian 

Chart  of  c.  1 508  .....  143 

(British  Museum,  Egerton  MS.  2803) 

Portuguese  Ships  from  the  Roteiro  of  D.  J0X0  de 

Castro,  1541  ......  166 

(British  Museum,  Cotton  MS.  Tib.  D.  ix) 

Outline  Maps  of  West  Africa  to  illustrate  the 
Esmeraldo 


at  END 


PREFACE 


The  Great  Age  of  Discovery  has  had  many  historians;  and  not 
without  good  reason,  for  it  has  provided  an  extraordinarily 
fertile  field  for  investigation.  But  it  is  unfortunate  that  so  much 
attention  should  have  been  focused  upon  the  leading  characters 
of  the  period,  and  so  little  upon  the  lesser,  as  it  has  caused  many 
of  the  less  spectacular  achievements  to  suffer  neglect.  Even  so, 
it  is  surprising  that  the  work  of  a  man  like  Duarte  Pacheco,  who, 
in  his  own  day,  was  deemed — for  a  time  at  any  rate — to  be  as 
eminent  as  Vasco  da  Gama,  should  have  lain  practically  un¬ 
noticed  for  nearly  four  hundred  years;  not  until  1892,  the 
quater-centenary  of  Columbus’s  epochal  voyage,  was  the 
Esmeraldo  de  Situ  Orbis  first  published.  With  the  development 
of  the  modern  concept  of  historical  geography  in  the  present 
century,  documents  of  this  character  have  come  to  possess  an 
altogether  new  significance,  so  that  an  English  translation  of  this 
work — providing,  as  it  does,  the  only  detailed,  contemporary 
eyewitness’s  description  of  the  African  coasts — is  well  overdue. 

In  preparing  this  translation  I  have  been  fortunate  enough  to 
enjoy  the  co-operation  of  Mr  Aubrey  Bell,  whose  skill,  both 
linguistic  and  literary,  has  greatly  lightened  my  task.  Indeed 
it  is  doubtful  whether  it  would  have  been  fulfilled  without  him. 
To  him,  therefore,  I  tender  my  warmest  gratitude.  My  cordial 
thanks  are  also  due  to  Professor  E.  Prestage  for  much  invaluable 
help  in  elucidating  difficult  passages;  to  my  colleague  Mr  W.  F. 
Morris,  for  undertaking  to  construct  a  map  of  West  Africa 


X 


PREFACE 


from  internal  data,  and  for  supplying  an  explanatory  note;  to 
Sir  William  Foster,  for  many  helpful  suggestions  and  for  reading 
the  proofs;  and  finally  to  Mr  E.  Lynam,  for  seeing  the  book 
through  the  press  and  for  unnumbered  incidental  kindnesses 
shown  at  a  time  when  he  was  troubled  with  ill-health. 

GEORGE  H.  T.  KIMBLE 

READING 
December  1936 


INTRODUCTION 


IT  is  nowadays  widely  accepted  that  the  Portuguese  were  the 
founders  of  nautical  science.  Before  their  time  maritime 
enterprise  had  been  conducted  largely  by  private  individuals 
or  by  small  companies  of  adventurers;  as  few  of  these  men 
recorded  their  undertakings,  kept  logs  or  drew  charts,  their 
experiences  had  little  or  no  cumulative  value  and  each  generation 
was  as  ignorant  as  its  predecessor.  So  long  as  their  seafaring 
activities  were  confined  to  the  Mediterranean  and  adjacent 
waters,  navigation  “by  God  and  by  guess,”  although  attended 
by  grave  risks,  served  them  well  enough.  But  when,  in  the  early 
years  of  the  fifteenth  century,  men  began  to  plan  the  maritime 
exploration  of  the  unknown  Torrid  Zone  and  the  Southern 
Hemisphere,  it  became  clear  that  empiricism  in  nautical  matters 
could  no  longer  be  relied  upon.  The  rise  of  nautical  science  in 
Portugal  was  the  logical  outcome  of  the  needs  created  by  these 
expeditions. 

The  history  of  this  development  has  been  so  thoroughly 
investigated  in  recent  years  by  Dr  Joaquim  Bensaude1  and  others 
that  anything  more  than  a  passing  reference  to  the  general 
nautical  methods  and  equipment  of  the  Portuguese  pioneers 
would  be  out  of  place  in  this  introduction,  all  the  more  so  as  the 
narrative  that  follows  answers  many  of  the  questions  we  might 
be  tempted  to  ask.  For  instance,  Pacheco  tells  us  how  latitude 
is  calculated  with  the  help  of  the  astrolabe,  quadrant  and 
Regimento1 ;  how  mariners  find  their  way  along  strange  coasts3 ; 
how  tides  are  calculated4;  the  sizes  and  kinds  of  vessels  com¬ 
monly  employed  in  African  waters3.  Even  so,  it  is  not  possible 
to  measure  the  nautical  accomplishments  of  the  Portuguese  by 
the  yardstick  of  the  Esmeraldo  de  Situ  Orbis:  in  fact  so  much  of 
the  work  carried  but  by  them  has  perished  that  there  is  no  means 

*  L’Astronomie  nautique  au  Portugal  d  Vipoque  (Us  grander  ddcouvertes,  1912. 
There  is  a  very  useful  summary  of  Portuguese  nautical  practice  c.  1500  in 
E.  Prestage,  Portuguese  Pioneers,  chap.  14. 

*  Book  1,  chap.  xo.  3  Book  11,  chap,  xo  et  passim. 

4  Book  II,  chaps,  x,  3.  5  Book  iv,  chap.  2. 


INTRODUCTION 


xii 

of  accurately  determining  the  Portuguese  contribution  to  nautical 
science.  In  the  first  place,  nothing  of  the  work  of  Master  Jacome 
— the  most  famous  Catalan  cartographer  of  his  day  (whom 
Prince  Henry  secured  for  his  School  of  Sagres) — is  extant. 
Further,  no  fifteenth-century  map  of  Portuguese  provenance  and 
comparatively  few  of  the  early  sixteenth  century  have  survived. 
The  same  dearth  prevails  as  regards  nautical  documents ;  a  mere 
handful  of  navigation  manuals,  instructions  to  pilots,  logs  and 
rutters  has  come  down  to  us  from  this  early  period,  and  again 
none  from  the  fifteenth  century1.  That  there  must  have  been 
maps  is  apparent  when  we  recall  the  allusions  to  them  in  Zurara : 
e.g.  “they  [i.e.  the  51  caravels  sent  out  before  1446  by  Prince 
Henry]  went  450  leagues  beyond  Cape  Bojador  and  all  that  coast 
was  found  to  run  southwards  with  many  points  which  our  Prince 
caused  to  be  added  to  the  sailing  chart3,”  and  the  declaration  of 
Alfonso  V  that  until  Henry’s  time  “  no  one  knew  anything  of  the 
land  beyond  Cape  Bojador,  nor  was  it  marked  on  sailing  charts 
and  mappaemundi  save  as  men  pleased^.”  That  there  were 
rutters  and  textbooks  of  navigation  in  the  same  period  is  less 
certain.  Zurara  does  not  mention  them,  nor  do  the  other 
chroniclers  of  that  century.  Fontoura  da  Costa  surmises,  how¬ 
ever,  that  Portuguese  “  roteiros  ”  began  to  be  compiled  soon  after 
the  doubling  of  Cape  Bojador  in  14344. 

Whatever  the  explanation  of  their  scarcity,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  discovery  of  India  at  the  end  of  the  century  gave  a 
tremendous  impetus  to  the  detailed  description  of  the  new  sea 
route,  for  manuals  on  navigation  and  sailing  directions  began  to 
appear  in  the  first  decade  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  were 
published  thereafter  at  frequent  intervals.  At  first  these  were 
the  work  of  the  Portuguese  exclusively;  later  on,  similar  works 
by  English  and  Dutch  writers  were  produced.  From  them  have 
sprung  the  excellent  “Pilot”  books  of  the  present  day. 

*  The  so-called  “roteiro  ”  of  Vasco  da  Gama’s  first  voyage  is  only  a  rather 
simple  diary  of  the  voyage  and  is  very  deficient  in  scientific  observations. 

*  Chap.  78.  Discovery  and  Conquest  of  Guinea  (Hakluyt  Society). 

5  Alguns  Documentor  do  Archivo  Nacional. .  .Acerca  das  Navegaf&es  e 
Conquistas  Porluguezas,  p.  8. 

4  A  Marinharia  dos  descobrimentos,  vide  C.  R.  Boxer,  “Portuguese  Roteiros, 
1500-1700,”  Manner’s  Mirror,  vol.  xx,  April  1934,  p.  172. 


INTRODUCTION 


xiii 

If  we  exclude  some  rather  crude  rutters  of  uncertain  date  by 
G.  Pires  and  J.  Rodrigues1,  then  the  earliest  dated  Portuguese 
“roteiro”  is  the  Esmeraldo  de  Situ  Orbis. 

THE  AUTHOR  OF  THE  ESMERALDO 

Comparatively  little  is  known  of  the  early  life  of  Duarte  Pacheco 
Pereira.  The  son  of  Jo2o  Pacheco,  a  scion  of  a  distinguished 
Portuguese  family,  he  is  usually  regarded  as  having  been  born 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  This  belief  is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  the  capture  of  Arzila  in  1471,  at  which  the 
writer  of  the  Esmeraldo  says  he  was  present2 — presumably  as  a 
soldier — is  the  earliest  recorded  biographical  detail. 

Elsewhere  in  the  same  book  Pacheco  tells  us  that  he  was  bom 
in  Lisbon5,  that  he  was  employed  by  King  John  II  of  Portugal 
in  African  waters  and  that,  in  company  with  others  of  the  King’s 
captains,  he  discovered  “many  places  and  rivers  along  the  coast 
of  Guinea4.”  From  another  chapter5  it  would  appear,  further¬ 
more,  that  Pacheco  was  associated  with  Diogo  d’Azumbuja  in 
the  founding  of  the  castle  of  S.  Jorze  da  Mina.  By  1498  his 
reputation  as  a  navigator  was  so  well  established  that  King 
Manuel  I  despatched  him,  secretly  it  would  seem6,  to  discover 
“the  Western  region7.”  This  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  “a 
very  large  landmass,  with  many  large  islands  adjacent8.”  Two 
years  later  Pacheco  went  out  again  with  Cabral,  who  had  orders  to 
touch  at  the  Brazilian  coast  (which  Pacheco  had  apparently 
sighted)  before  going  on  to  India. 

For  the  next  chapter  in  his  history  we  have  a  more  detailed 
record  to  draw  upon.  In  1503  King  Manuel  sent  Pacheco  out 
to  India  with  the  Albuquerques.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  there 
he  led  an  expedition  against  the  fleet  of  Calicut  with  such  success 
that  “the  fame  of  the  Portuguese  arms  was  spread  everywhere 
and  the  merchants  were  afraid  to  bring  their  spices  to  Cochin*.” 

1  Vide  C.  R.  Boxer,  op.  cit.  p.  173.  *  Book  n,  Prologue. 

3  Book  1,  chap.  23 ;  book  iv,  chap.  4. 

4  Book  1,  Prologue.  *  Book  n,  chap.  5. 

4  Vide  E.  Prestage,  Portuguese  Pioneers,  p.  277. 

7  Book  1,  chap.  2.  '  Ibid. 

9  J.  Osorio,  The  History  of  the  Portuguese  during  the  Reign  of  Emmanuel 
(trans.  by  J.  Gibbs),  vol.  1,  p.  167. 


XIV 


INTRODUCTION 


Even  greater  success  came  in  1504  after  the  Albuquerques  had 
left  India  and  Pacheco  was  in  entire  charge  of  the  garrison,  fleet, 
and  factory.  In  March  of  that  year  he  launched  an  attack  against 
the  Samuri;  by  his  “assiduity  and  bravery. .  .this  formidable 
war  was  brought  to  a  conclusion  in  five  months,  during  which 
time  the  enemy  is  computed  to  have  lost  about  19,000  men 
together  with  a  considerable  number  of  their  ships1.”  In  the 
following  year  he  returned  to  Lisbon,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  honour.  “His  expedition  in  carrying  on  war,  his 
magnanimity  in  the  greatest  dangers,  his  steadiness  in  enduring 
hardships  and  his  success  in  battle  were  extolled  to  the  skies. 
The  King  ordered  a  public  thanksgiving  on  his  account  and 
made  a  pompous  procession  with  the  court  from  the  cathedral 
to  St  Dominic’s  church.  He  made  Pacheco  walk  by  his  side  that 
all  might  see  what  respect  he  paid  to  bravery.  After  they  came 
to  the  church,  Diogo  Ortiz,  Bishop  of  Vizeu,  pronounced  an 
oration,  wherein  he  copiously  set  forth  the  illustrious  and 
admirable  exploits  of  Pacheco  and  piously  concluded  by  ascribing 
all  to  the  glory  of  God.  Nor  was  Emmanuel  satisfied  with  doing 
him  this  great  honour ;  he  likewise  wrote  letters  to  almost  all  the 
Christian  princes,  wherein  he  extolled  Pacheco’s  actions  with 
due  applause,  that  his  fame  and  renown  might  spread  through 
Christendom3.” 

From  this  time  onwards  information  concerning  Pacheco 
again  becomes  meagre.  His  strenuous  life  of  the  previous  six  or 
seven  years  and  the  award  of  a  pension  of  20  milreis  may  help 
to  explain  his  apparent  retirement  (from  public  life)  during  the 
next  few  years.  At  all  events  we  do  not  meet  him  again  until 
1509.  The  intervening  time  was  not  all  spent  idly  however,  for 
it  was  during  this  period  of  his  life  that  the  Esmeraldo  was 
partly,  if  not  entirely,  written*.  In  1509  Pacheco  temporarily 
returned  to  a  more  active  occupation,  for  in  the  January  of  that 
year  we  find  him  conducting  an  expedition  against  the  French 
pirate  Mondragon,  whom  he  succeeded  in  capturing  off  Cape 
Finisterre.  In  addition  to  this  brilliant  excursion  back  into 

*  J.  Osorio,  The  History  0/  the  Portuguese  during  the  Reign  of  Emmanuel 
(trsns.  by  J.  Gibbs),  vol.  1,  p.  167. 

*  J.  Osorio,  op.  eit.  p.  220. 


3  Vide  infra,  pp.  xvi  et  seq. 


INTRODUCTION 


XV 


maritime  affairs  Pacheco  appears  to  have  been  captain  of  a 
Portuguese  fleet  that  guarded  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  c.  15111; 
how  long  he  continued  to  hold  this  position  it  is  difficult  to  tell. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  we  do  not  hear  of  him  playing  any  further 
active  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  State  until  the  end  of  the  decade. 
In  fact,  between  1509  and  1519  there  are  only  half  a  dozen 
documents  extant  that  bear  on  Pacheco’s  life,  and  none  of  these 
is  very  revealing;  they  simply  record  matters  relating  to  the 
renewal  of  his  State  pension  and  to  his  association  with  other 
distinguished  men*.  In  view  of  his  almost  unique  geographical 
and  nautical  knowledge  it  is  difficult  not  to  believe  that  he  was 
employed  by  King  Manuel  as  an  adviser  on  colonial  policy,  even 
if  by  now  he  was  too  old  to  undertake  further  expeditions.  But 
these  are  merely  hypotheses  which,  in  the  absence  of  any 
evidence,  are  of  little  worth. 

Pacheco’s  last  public  charge,  so  far  as  our  scanty  knowledge 
goes,  was  the  governorship  of  the  castle  of  S.  Jorze  da  Mina. 
This  position  he  seems  to  have  held  from  1520  to  1522;  in  the 
latter  year  he  was  recalled  and  succeeded  by  Afonso  d’Albu- 
querque,  son  of  the  Albuquerque  of  Indian  fame.  The  circum¬ 
stances  of  his  recall  are  described  by  Osorio  thus :  “  Pacheco  being 
greatly  envied  there,  he  was  accused  by  his  enemies  of  having 
defrauded  the  King  of  a  great  quantity  of  gold  and  of  having 
been  guilty  of  many  scandalous  and  villainous  practices.  The 
King  therefore  ordered  him  home  in  irons,  where  he  lived  in  a 
very  miserable  condition,  in  close  confinement  for  a  considerable 
time,  till  the  affair  being  more  carefully  enquired  into,  it  appeared 
that  the  crimes  laid  to  his  charge  were  either  without  foundation 
or  such  as  did  not  deserve  such  severe  punishment.  Then  indeed 
he  was  released  from  prison  and  restored  to  his  dignity,  but  did 
not  meet  with  a  reward  suitable  to  his  great  merit,  and  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  days  in  obscure  poverty3.”  His  subsequent 
movements  are  all  unknown.  We  only  know  that  he  was  still 

*  Vide  Sousa  Viterbo,  Trabalfios  nauticos  dot  Portugueses  nos  Seculot  XVI 
e  XVII,  vol.  1,  pp.  238  et  seq. 

1  Vide  R.  E.  de  Azevedo  Basto,  Esmeraldo  de  Situ  Orbit,  ediflo  commemo- 
rativa,  1892,  pp.  xx  et  seq. 

J  J.  Osorio,  op.  cit.  pp.  220,  221. 


XVI 


INTRODUCTION 


alive  on  February  5th,  1526s;  and  from  a  provision  of  King 
John  of  June  22nd,  1534,  in  which  he  awards  an  annual  pension 
of  20  milreis  to  Jo5o  Fernando  Pacheco,  Duarte  Pacheco’s  son, 
we  may  not  unreasonably  assume  that  Duarte  was  no  longer 
living  by  that  date.  More  precise  we  are  scarcely  able  to  be. 

THE  DATE  OF  THE  ESMERALDO 

The  Esmcraldo  receives  practically  no  mention  in  contemporary 
literature.  It  is  therefore  very  fortunate  that  the  evidence  of 
the  work  itself  should  leave  us  in  little  doubt  as  to  its  approximate 
date.  A  rough  terminus  a  quo  is  provided  by  the  author’s 
reference,  in  the  Prologue,  to  the  discoveries  of  Vasco  da  Gama 
of  1497-1499,  while  an  equally  rough  terminus  ante  quern  is  forth¬ 
coming  in  the  last  chapter  of  book  iv,  where  Pacheco  still 
continues  to  refer  to  King  Manuel  (d.  1521)  as  “our  Sovereign 
Lord.”  Now  it  is  obvious  that  Pacheco  was  not  twenty  years 
writing  the  Esmeraldo,  even  if  we  suppose  for  the  moment  that 
he  did  actually  complete  his  task  and  write  five  books  instead 
of  three  and  a  few  chapters  of  a  fourth1.  When,  therefore,  was 
he  actively  engaged  upon  it?  While  the  evidence  does  not  permit 
of  a  final  answer  to  this  question,  it  does  allow  us  to  be  slightly 
more  specific.  In  the  first  place,  as  Pacheco  was  abroad  most 
of  the  time  from  1498  to  1505  it  is  very  unlikely  that  he  com¬ 
menced  to  write  until  his  return  from  India.  An  examination 
of  the  two  passages  of  the  text  containing  definite  dating  material 
strengthens  this  view.  The  first  of  these  occurs  in  chapter  14  of 
book  1  and  runs  as  follows :  “  It  is  now  about  ninety  years  since 
Cepta  was  captured  by  force  of  arms  from  the  Moors  by  King 
John  I  of  glorious  memory. .  .the  other  three  [towns  Alcacer, 
Tangier  and  Arzila]  were  taken  by  King  Afonso  V,  your  uncle, 
47  years  ago.”  Ceuta  was  taken  in  July  1415  under  the  leadership 
of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator;  adding  90  years  we  arrive  at 
1505  as  the  approximate  time  of  writing.  This  date  is  confirmed 
by  the  statement  about  Alcacer,  which  was  captured  in  1458. 
Tangier  and  Arzila,  on  the  other  hand,  were  not  taken  until 

*  Vide  Azevedo  Basto,  op.  cit.  pp.  xxiii,  xxiv. 

’  Vide  infra,  pp.  xxix,  xxx. 


INTRODUCTION 


XVII 


1471 ;  on  this  reckoning  the  Esmeraldo  must  be  allocated  to  the 
end  of  the  following  decade,  namely  1518.  As  Pacheco  himself 
tells  us  in  the  Prologue  to  book  11  that  Alcacer  was  taken  in  1458 
and  Arzila  in  1471  it  is  not  possible  to  say  with  assurance  which 
year  the  writer  had  in  mind  when  he  wrote  “47  years  ago.” 

In  a  later  passage  Pacheco  tells  us  that  “in  the  year  of  Our 
Lord  1506  your  Highness  ordered  a  castle  to  be  built  on  the 
mainland  in  this  town  of  Moguador  hard  by  the  sea.. .  .This 
was  constructed  and  commanded  by  Dieguo  d’Azambuja. . 

As  this  event  is  referred  to  in  the  past  tense,  the  passage  was 
clearly  written  after  1506.  From  this  passage  onwards  all  the 
dating  material  points  to  a  date  later  than  1505,  but  not  later 
than  1508.  Dr  Jaime  Cortesao,  who  has  studied  the  question 
very  fully,  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  first  fifteen  chapters,  or 
somewhat  less  than  a  quarter  of  the  work,  were  written  during 
the  last  months  of  1505,  the  remainder  between  1507  and  1508*. 


THE  MEANING  OF  THE  TITLE 

The  title  of  Pacheco’s  work  is  puzzling.  De  Situ  Orbis,  of  course, 
needs  no  explanation;  it  was  commonly  incorporated  into  the 
headings  of  treatises  of  cosmography  from  the  time  of  Pom- 
ponius  Mela  onwards.  Esmeraldo ,  however,  is  an  unusual  word. 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  explain  it,  but  none  of  them 
is  completely  satisfactory.  Epiphanio  da  Silva  Dias3  has  sug¬ 
gested  that  Pacheco  may  have  followed  the  example  set  by  an 
Arab  writer  of  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  one 
Ibn-al-Wardi,  who  entitled  a  work  on  geography  and  natural 
history  A  Precious  Stone  of  Marvels  and  a  Pearl  of  Memorable 
Things.  The  objections  to  this  view  are  twofold ;  in  the  first  place 
there  appears  to  be  no  reason  for  supposing  that  Pacheco  was 
acquainted  with  this  book,  and,  secondly,  it  is  difficult  to  see  why 
he  should  prefer  to  use  the  Italian  termination  of  the  word  for 
“  emerald  ”  to  the  Portuguese  (and  Spanish)  form — “  csmeralda.” 

*  Book  1,  chap.  19. 

*  “  Influ£ncia  dos  Descobrimentos  dos  Portuguese  na  histbria  da  civiii- 
safao,”  in  Histories  de  Portugal,  vol.  rv,  p.  228. 

3  Esmeraldo  de  Situ  Orbis,  edigio  critics  annotada,  1905.  P-  4- 


INTRODUCTION 


xviii 

Luciano  Pereira  da  Silva  has  an  even  more  ingenious  solution 
to  offer1.  He  holds  that  Esmeraldo  is  an  anagram  of  the  names 
Emmanuel  (Manuel)  and  Eduardus  (Duarte).  This  explanation 
appears  to  be  even  less  probable  than  the  first,  for  the  word 
Esmeraldo  does  not  contain  all  the  letters  of  the  two  Christian 
names  in  question,  indeed  it  does  not  contain  the  requisite  letters 
to  form  either  name ;  furthermore,  it  is  unlikely  that  Pacheco, 
who,  throughout  his  work,  refers  with  the  utmost  respect  to  his 
sovereign,  should  have  taken  the  liberty  of  coupling  his  name 
with  that  of  King  Manuel. 

A  third  and  very  reasonable  explanation  has  been  suggested 
to  me  by  Dr  George  Sheppard.  In  his  opinion  the  word 
Esmeraldo  is  akin  philologically  to  the  Spanish  word  “  esmerado  ” 
(= guide).  Certainly  the  Esmeraldo  de  Situ  Orbis  is  first  and 
foremost  a  guide  to  navigation. 


THE  CONTENT  OF  THE  ESMERALDO 

Though  the  title  is  obscure,  there  is  nothing  obscure  about  the 
scope  and  aim  of  the  book.  In  the  author’s  own  introductory 
words,  his  intention  is  to  write  “a  book  of  cosmography  and 
navigation.”  Because  of  the  orientation  of  Portuguese  interests 
he  will  limit  himself  to  two  of  the  four  continents,  Africa  and 
Asia ;  all  that  concerns  navigation  he  will  describe  at  great  length : 
“  thus  all  the  routes  will  be  stated,  namely  the  position  of  places 
and  promontories  in  relation  to  one  another,  in  order  that  this 
work  may  have  an  ordered  basis  and  that  the  coast  may  be 
navigated  in  greater  safety:  similarly  the  landmarks  and  shallows, 
for  these  are  essential ;  and  the  soundings,  both  their  depths  and 
the  kind  of  bottom,  whether  it  be  mud  or  sand  or  rock  or 
gravel  or  snags  or  shingle,  and  the  distance  of  the  soundings 
from  land:  similarly  the  tides,  whether  they  flow  NE  and 
SW  as  in  our  Spain,  or  N  and  S  or  E  and  W  or  NW  and  SE, 
which  it  is  essential  to  know  in  order  to  be  able  to  enter 
and  leave  the  bars  and  mouths  of  rivers:  further,  the  altitudes 
of  the  poles,  by  which  one  may  know  the  latitude  of  a  place  and 


1  Historia  da  Colottisafao  Porluguesa  do  Brasil,  vol.  I,  p.  249. 


INTRODUCTION 


XIX 


its  distance  from  the  Equator.’*  He  says  he  will  also  describe 
the  inhabitants  of  the  land  of  Ethiopia  and  their  way  of  life. 

Unfortunately  the  project  does  not  seem  to  have  been  entirely 
realised.  Three  of  the  five  books  contemplated  are  extant  and 
a  part  of  the  fourth,  carrying  the  description  down  to  the  Rio 
do  Infante  in  South  Africa.  Now  in  view  of  what  we  know  of 
Pacheco’s  life  and  of  the  fact  that  the  body  of  the  work  seems 
to  have  been  written  soon  after  his  return  from  India,  it  is 
difficult  to  see  why  the  Esmeraldo  should  not  have  been  com¬ 
pleted,  especially  as  it  was  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  books  that  the 
author  promised  to  deal  with  the  hitherto  undescribed  south¬ 
eastern  and  eastern  coastline  of  Africa1. 

As  far  as  the  work  goes  it  certainly  fulfils  the  author’s  promises. 
After  twelve  introductory  chapters  on  general  geographical  topics 
such  as  the  territorial  division  of  the  earth,  the  course  of  the 
Nile,  tidal  phenomena  and  the  calculation  of  latitudes,  Pacheco 
commences  his  systematic  description  of  the  coastline.  Through¬ 
out  this  part  of  the  work  he  follows  a  rigorously  disciplined  order 
of  treatment,  embellished  here  and  there  by  historical  anecdotes 
and  personal  opinions  that  at  once  reveal  the  calibre  of  the  writer 
and  the  state  of  contemporary  knowledge.  Compared  with 
contemporary  works  like  Enciso’s  Suma  de  Geographiay  the 
Esmeraldo  offers  a  more  detailed  and  circumstantial  account  of 
the  coast.  Whereas  much  of  Enciso’s  information  could  have 
been  obtained,  and  undoubtedly  was  obtained,  from  charts, 
Pacheco’s  has  all  the  traits  of  personal  or  eyewitness  narrative ; 
but  this  is  not  surprising  in  view  of  the  part  Pacheco  played  in 
the  discovery  of  the  Guinea  coast. 

PACHECO’S  DEBT  TO  TRADITION 

In  sharp  contrast,  however,  to  the  up-to-date  character  of 
Pacheco’s  geographical  knowledge  of  W.  Africa  is  the  mediaeval, 
even  classical,  bias  of  his  knowledge  of  the  rest  of  the  world. 
For  instance,  in  lauding  King  Manuel  he  says  “your  glorious 
fame . . .  sounds  through  the  whole  of  Europe  and  Africa,  Arabia, 
Persia,  through  the  lands  of  the  Elamites,  Babylonians,  Chaldeans, 
1  Vide  pp.  xxviii  et  teq.  for  a  possible  explanation  of  this  anomaly. 


XX 


INTRODUCTION 


Medes,  Assyrians,  Parthians,  Phoenicians. .  .it  even  penetrates  to 
the  very  distant  and  ferocious  peoples  of  Cithas  and  the  most 
wealthy  kingdoms  of  India1  ” — a  catalogue  that  would  have  been 
more  appropriate  to  Herodotus’s  day  than  to  Pacheco’s.  His 
description  of  the  Ocean  is  also  strangely  reminiscent  of  classical 
writings1,  while  his  fivefold  division  of  Africa  into  the  provinces 
of  Libya,  Mauretania,  Tingitania,  Atlantica  and  Ethiopia  is 
openly  borrowed  from  the  Ancients,  upon  whom  he  does  not 
attempt  to  improved  He  further  shows  his  classical  bias  in 
employing  the  R.  Nile  and  the  R.  Tanais  (i.e.  Don)  as  the 
boundary  lines  between  Africa  and  Asia  and  between  Europe 
and  Asia  respectively.  Here  and  elsewhere  the  testimony  of  the 
Scriptures  is  added  to  that  of  such  men  as  Strabo,  Pliny,  Mela 
and  Ptolemy,  both  to  give  weight  to  the  author’s  arguments  and 
to  provide  him  with  his  “factual ”  basis.  When  he  finds  them  in 
disagreement  he  is  not  above  pursuing  a  highly  meretricious 
middle  path.  His  discussion  of  the  problem  of  the  Nile’s  origin 
provides  us  with  an  illustration  of  his  casuistry.  It  was  a  con¬ 
troversial  subject  in  classical  times,  and  Pacheco  cannot  have 
been  ignorant  of  the  obscurity  surrounding  it  and  the  absence 
of  data;  notwithstanding  he  does  not  hesitate  to  proffer  a 
solution.  He  rejects,  rather  surprisingly  (seeing  that  he  defers 
to  them  elsewhere),  the  views  of  Mela,  Pliny  and  the  Christian 
Fathers,  and  purports  to  base  his  statements  “  according  to  the 
description  of  Ptolemy4  ” ;  but  whereas  Ptolemy  places  the  sources 
of  the  Nile  in  12  S.,  Pacheco  places  them  in  350  S.,  that  is,  in  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  affirms  that  the“  rocky  mountains  [sic]  of 
the  Cape  ’’  must  be  the  Ptolemaic  “  Montes  LunaeV*  This  seems 
to  suggest  one  of  two  things :  either  that  Pacheco  knew  very  little 
about  Ptolemy’s  Geographia,  for  it  is  expressly  stated  there  that 
some  of  the  Moon  Mountains  were  so  lofty  as  to  be  covered  with 
snow  and  that  the  entire  range  stretched  through  11  degrees  of 
longitude,  that  is,  some  700  miles6,  or  that  he  quoted  Ptolemy 
and  the  other  classical  authorities,  not  because  he  accepted  their 
authority,  but  in  order  that  he  might  keep  himself  in  countenance 

*  Prologue,  book  1.  *  Book  1,  chap.  5.  *  Ibid. 

*  Book  I,  chap.  4.  5  Ibid. 

‘  Geographia,  book  iv,  chap.  8,  para.  iii. 


INTRODUCTION 


XXI 


with  the  scholars  of  his  day.  His  allusion  to  Pliny's  description 
of  the  middle  Nile  inclines  me  to  the  latter  view.  After  speaking 
of  the  island  of  Meroe  which,  he  avers,  is  formed  by  the  tem¬ 
porary  bifurcation  of  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  and  which,  according 
to  Pliny,  is  very  fertile  and  well  populated,  he  continues :  “  Pliny 
says  further  that  the  Nile  flows  for  twenty  days’  journey 
underground  and  then  reappears  as  a  new  river,  and  that 
the  inhabitants  of  that  region  believe  that  the  Nile  rises 
there1.”  Now  the  context  of  this  statement  in  the  Natural 
History ,  from  which  Pacheco  is  quoting,  is  the  paragraph  dealing 
with  the  Western  Nile2 ;  in  Pliny’s  opinion  this  formed  part  of 
the  drainage  system  of  the  Egyptian  Nile — an  opinion  that  was 
completely  at  variance  with  Ptolemy’s,  namely,  that  the  two 
systems  were  separate. 

How  little  attention  Pacheco  paid  to  the  substance  of  classical 
geography  can  be  seen  in  his  discussion  of  the  cause  of  the  Nile 
floods.  Here  he  rejects  all  the  classical  theories — including 
Strabo’s,  which  was  substantially  correct  and  well-grounded — 
and  sponsors  the  view  that  they  are  the  result  of  the  winter  rains 
in  the  Southern  Hemisphere.  What  sort  of  gradient  the  Nile 
would  need  to  have  in  order  to  traverse  8500  miles — the  minimal 
distance  between  350  S.  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea — in  “a  few 
days*  ”  is  left  to  our  imagination.  Leo  Africanus,  a  contemporary 
of  Pacheco,  could  have  told  him  that  the  flood-waters  take 
forty  days  and  more  to  come  down  from  the  Abyssinian  high¬ 
lands4. 

A  somewhat  different  bias — this  time  towards  biblical  and 
ecclesiastical  authority — but  the  same  casuistry  is  revealed  in  his 
treatment  of  “The  Size  and  Greatness  of  the  Earth  and  Sea 
and  which  of  them  is  the  larged.”  In  a  word,  Pacheco’s  thesis  is 
this :  the  earth  is  not  surrounded  by  the  sea,  as  was  maintained 
by  many  of  the  philosophers,  but  rather  “  the  earth  in  its  great¬ 
ness  surrounds  and  contains  all  the  waters  in  its  concavity  and 
centre.”  After  adducing  arguments  from  Vincent  of  Beauvais’s 

*  Book  1,  chap.  4-  *  Book  v»  ch*P-  5* 

*  Book  1,  chap  4. 

4  History  and  Description  of  Africa,  vol.  Ill,  p.  936  (Hakluyt  Society). 

5  Book  1,  chap.  2. 


XXII 


INTRODUCTION 


commentary  on  the  Psalter,  he  proceeds  to  argue  that  the  recent 
discoveries  of  the  Portuguese  in  the  western  Atlantic — which  he 
regards  himself  as  having  initiated1 — provide  fresh  evidence  of 
his  contention*.  The  immediate  interest  of  the  passage  for  us 
lies  in  the  fact  that  Pacheco  held  this  “large  continent”  to  be 
continuous  from  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle  to  south  of  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn.  How  did  he  arrive  at  this  conclusion?  There  are 
his  own  personal  observations  and  the  findings  of  such  other 
Portuguese  explorers  as  Cabral,  Coelho  and  the  Corte  Real 
brothers.  Cabral  can  be  quickly  dismissed,  as  his  Brazilian 
experience,  whether  fortuitous  or  planned,  was  only  of  some 
four  or  five  days'  duration.  Gon^alo  Coelho  and  FernSo  de 
Noronha,  accompanied;  so  it  would  seem,  by  Vespucci,  followed 
up  this  landfall  in  1501  and  1502  and  succeeded  in  tracing  the 
Brazilian  coastline  from  about  the  latitude  of  Cape  San  Roque 
down  to,  if  not  beyond,  the  limit  given  by  Pacheco.  The  Corte 
Real  expeditions  of  1500  and  1502  were  prosecuted  in  northern 
waters;  although  the  existing  records  of  their  work  are  meagre 
in  the  extreme,  it  appears  likely  that  the  north-east  coast  of 
North  America  was  examined  from  about  the  latitude  of  Hudson 
Strait  down  to  50°  N.  This  leaves  some  50  degrees  of  coastline 
still  unaccounted  for.  Did  Pacheco  explore  this  portion?  We 
hardly  think  so.  In  the  first  place,  had  he  done  so  he  could  not 
have  failed  to  notice  the  vast  embayment  of  the  Caribbean  Sea 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  with  their  possibility  of  a  break  in  the 
continuity  of  the  mainland*,  and  he  could  not  have  committed 
himself  to  the  gross  misstatement  that,  if  “  from  any  other  point  of 
Europe,  Africa  or  Asia  [sic],  we  sail  across  the  Ocean... through 
36  degrees  of  longitude  [  =  648  leagues  on  his  reckoning] . . .  we  find 

*  The  validity  of  Pacheco's  claim  to  have  "discovered  and  sailed  along  a 
large  continent  [Brazil?]  ”  I  do  not  propose  to  discuss,  as  Mr  W.  B.  Greenlee 
promises  to  give  us  a  full  investigation  of  the  early  American  explorations  of 
the  Portuguese  in  his  edition  of  the  Cabral  documents  shortly  to  be  published 
by  the  Hakluyt  Society. 

*  Book  x,  chap.  2. 

3  The  continuity  of  this  part  of  the  American  coastline  was  only  established 
after  Pineda’s  voyage  in  1519,  but  judging  from  the  Reinel  map  of  c.  1522 
(Bibliothique  Nationale,  Paris),  this  fact  was  not  immediately  accepted  in 
Portugal.  The  Diogo  Ribeiro  planisphere  of  1527  is  the  first  Portuguese  map 
to  suggest  the  continuity  of  the  Central  American  coastline. 


INTRODUCTION 


xxiii 

this  land1.”  To  find  land  in  middle  latitudes  he  would  need  to 
go  at  least  800  leagues.  In  the  second  place  he  would  not  have 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  “  this  distant  land  is  densely  popu¬ 
lated2.”  In  the  third  place,  while  Pacheco  gives  the  latitude  of 
several  places  in  Brazil,  stretching  from  30  S.  to  z8J°  S.,  he 
gives  none  for  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  the  new  con- 
tinentf. 

Where,  then,  did  Pacheco  derive  his  information?  The  corre¬ 
spondence  of  Pietro  Pasqualigo,  the  Venetian,  provides  us  with 
the  clue.  In  a  letter  to  the  Seigneury  of  Venice,  written  from 
Lisbon  in  1501,  he  says,  speaking  of  the  return  of  the  first  caravel 
of  Gaspar  Corte  Real’s  expedition:  “the  people  of  the  caravel 
believe  that  the  above  land  [Labrador?]  is  the  mainland  and  that 
it  joins  the  other  land  [Newfoundland?  Greenland?]  that  in  the 
previous  year  was  discovered  to  the  north  by  another  caravel  of 
His  Majesty.  But  they  were  not  able  to  reach  it  because  the  sea 
was  frozen  over  with  vast  quantities  of  snow  like  mountains  on 
the  land.  They  also  think  that  it  is  joined  to  the  Andilie  [i.e. 
Antilles]  which  were  discovered  by  the  Sovereigns  of  Spain,  and 
with  the  land  of  Papagia  [i.e.  Brazil]  lately  discovered  by  the 
ship  of  this  King  [i.e.  Manuel]  when  on  its  way  to  Calicut.  This 
belief  is  caused,  in  the  first  place,  because  having  coasted  along 
the  said  land  for  a  distance  of  600  miles  and  more,  they  did  not 
come  to  any  termination;  also  because  they  report  the  discovery 
of  many  very  large  rivers  which  fall  into  the  sea . . .  V*  In  a  letter 
(of  almost  the  same  date)  to  his  brothers,  Pasqualigo  writes: 
“they  say  [i.e.  the  crew  of  the  caravel]  that  this  land  [i.e.  La¬ 
brador?]  is  very  populous.. .  .They  have  brought  here  seven  of 
the  natives,  men,  women,  children,  and  50  others  will  come  in 
the  other  caravel  which  is  expected  from  hour  to  hour5.’ 

From  these  letters  it  is  clear  that  the  continuity  of  the  new 
continent  was  already  postulated  by  the  time  of  Pacheco’s  return 
from  the  Cabral  expedition  and  that  Pacheco  was  not  alone  in 
regarding  this  distant  land  as  being  thickly  populated.  In  the 

1  Book  x,  chap.  2.  *  Ibid. 

J  Book  I,  chap.  7. 

4  C.  R.  Markham,  Journal  of  Columbus,  p.  232  (Hakluyt  Society). 

J  Ibid. 


XXIV 


INTRODUCTION 


absence  of  other  evidence  it  would  seem  clear,  furthermore,  that 
these  opinions  of  the  Corte  Real  crew  were  the  main  ground  of 
his  confidence.  What  motive  can  our  author  have  had  in  making 
so  bold  and  baseless  an  assertion  concerning  these  newly  found 
lands?  He  himself  tells  us.  He  is  out  to  demonstrate  that  “  the 
Ocean  is  only  a  very  large  lake  set  in  the  concavity  of  the  earth1  ” 
and  that  “the  water  only  occupies  a  seventh  part  of  the  earth, 
as  is  shown  in  the  fourth  book  of  the  prophet  Esdras  and  the 
sixth  chapter3.”  For  this  to  be  even  approximately  true  the  new 
continent  must  “go  round  the  whole  globe*”;  as  “its  end  has 
not  been  seen  or  known4  ”  in  Pacheco’s  time,  this  was  a  quite 
plausible  conjecture.  As  if  to  strengthen  his  own  convictions  he 
advances  the  ancient  theory  of  the  Antipodes,  but  both  wrongly 
attributes  and  applies  it*. 


PACHECO’S  NAUTICAL  RULINGS 

In  his  treatment  of  the  problems  pertaining  to  navigation, 
Pacheco  emancipates  himself  from  the  shackles  of  classical  and 
ecclesiastical  scholarship.  Experience,  not  tradition,  is  his  guide ; 
witness  such  commonly  repeated  aphorisms  as  “Experience 
has  disabused  us  of  doubts  and  errors6.”  His  discussion  of  the 
calculation  of  latitude — one  of  the  earliest  Portuguese  essays  on 
the  subject — is  entirely  practical  and  is  easily  the  clearest  and 
most  concise  explanation  that  had  been  given  up  to  his  time. 
After  a  general  preamble  he  proceeds  to  formulate  four  rules  for 
the  finding  of  latitude: 

1.  When  the  sun  is  between  the  observer  and  the  equator, 
whether  to  the  north  or  south  of  the  equator, 

Latitude  =  90° -(Altitude  of  sun  at  noon -its  Declination). 

2.  When  the  observer  is  between  the  sun  and  the  equator, 
and  the  altitude  and  the  declination  together  equal  more  than  90°, 

Latitude  (N.  or  S.)  =  Altitude  +  Declination— 90°. 

*  Book  1,  chap.  2. 

*  Ibid. 

i  Ibid. 


*  Ibid. 

4  Ibid. 

6  Book  11,  chap.  XX. 


INTRODUCTION 


XXV 


3 .  When  the  observer  is  between  the  sun  and  the  equator,  and 
the  altitude  and  the  declination  together  equal  less  than  90°, 

Latitude  (N.  or  S.)  =  90°  —  (Declination  +  Altitude). 

A  moment’s  reflection  will  suffice  to  show  that  Pacheco  was 
in  error  here,  for  when  the  observer  is  between  the  sun  and  the 
equator  the  sun’s  noon  altitude  and  the  declination  must  always 
be  more  than  90°.  This  formula,  however,  holds  good  for  the 
case  which  he  goes  on  to  describe. 

4.  When  the  equator  is  between  the  sun  and  the  observer, 

as  above. 

Compared  with  the  methods  described  in  the  Munich  Regi¬ 
men  to,  where  seven  cases  are  postulated,  the  directions  in  the 
Esmeraldo  are  remarkably  succinct  and  comprehensive.  In  point 
of  accuracy  there  is  little  to  choose  between  the  lists  of  latitudes 
given  in  the  two  works ;  if  anything,  Pacheco’s  is  the  more  precise. 
Naturally  the  degree  of  accuracy  is  greatest  in  those  parts  of 
Europe  and  Africa  where  measurements  had  been  taken  for  a 
comparatively  long  time ;  but  even  in  southern  latitudes  Pacheco’s 
figures  are  by  no  means  wide  of  the  mark.  Thus  he  places  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  340  30'  S.1,  Sofala  20°  S.a  and  Cape  San 
Roque  30  30'  S.3  The  enumeration  of  places  with  their  latitudes 
south  of  the  equator  is  noteworthy  when  we  recall  that  King 
Manuel  issued  a  decree  in  1504  ordering  the  suppression  of  all 
information,  including  latitudes,  bearing  on  the  navigation  of 
the  African  coast  beyond  Rio  do  Padram,  i.e.  70  S.  If,  as  we 
surmise4,  the  Esmeraldo  was  banned  by  the  national  inquisitors, 
this  may  well  have  been  one  of  the  contributory  reasons. 

The  problem  of  longitude  was  less  tractable  and  Pacheco 
avoids  it — in  spite  of  an  assurance  to  the  contrary  in  an  early 
chapter*.  He  contents  himself  with  the  rather  naive  statement 
that  “  degrees  of  longitude  are  counted  from  orient  to  Occident, 
which  the  mariners  call  east  and  west,  and  this  is  difficult  to 
ascertain  because  they  have  no  firm  and  fixed  point  as  are  the 

*  Actually  34°  22'  S. 

J  20  out. 

*  Book  i,  chap.  6. 


1  Actually  20®  io'  S. 
4  Vide  infra,  p.  xxix. 


XXVI 


INTRODUCTION 


poles  for  the  latitudes,  and  of  this  I  will  say  no  more1.”  It  was 
not  until  the  following  decade  that  the  subject  was  first  dealt 
with  in  the  textbooks  of  navigation,  and  then  only  in  a  tentative 
fashion.  Ruy  Faleiro  sought  to  establish  a  connection  between 
the  passage  of  the  moon’s  meridian  and  longitude;  Francisco 
Faleiro  argued  that  there  was  a  connection  between  magnetic 
deviation  and  longitude.  Jo2o  de  Castro  and  Pedro  Nunes  were 
non-committal.  And  so  the  search  continued  until  finality  was 
attained,  some  two  centuries  later,  as  a  result  of  the  invention 
of  the  chronometer. 

At  the  end  of  his  general  introduction  Pacheco  devotes  his 
attention  to  the  method  of  computing  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  • 
sea  in  the  Iberian  peninsula  and  in  “other  regions  where  there 
are  tides1.”  The  relation  between  the  moon’s  course  and  the 
tides  he  takes  for  granted,  but  he  grossly  underestimates  the 
complexity  of  the  subject  when  he  says  that  a  knowledge  of  the 
lunar  cycle  will  enable  a  mariner  to  judge  how  the  tide  stands 
no  matter  where  he  is.  He  did  not  know,  what  is  now  common 
knowledge,  that  the  constituents  of  a  tidal  regime  vary  from 
place  to  place,  that  there  are  semi-diurnal,  diurnal  and  longer 
period  forces  which  operate  in  different  ratios  in  different  places, 
and  he  only  seldom  seemed  to  notice  the  varying  effect  of  coastal 
configuration  on  the  rhythm  and  occurrence  of  tides.  His  rather 
wordy  account  may  be  paraphrased  as  follows : 

1 .  There  is  an  interval  between  one  conjunction  and  the  next 
of  29  days  12  hours  and  33  minutes,  the  reckoning  of  the 
“  philosophers  ”  differing  from  that  of  the  mariners  by  3  minutes. 

2.  As  the  “tidal  day”  is  of  the  same  length  as  the  lunar  day, 
there  is  a  daily  retardation  of  the  tide  of  some  45  to  50  minutes. 

3.  For  this  reason  the  state  of  the  tide  bears  a  close  and 
calculable  relationship  with  the  moon’s  position  in  the  heavens. 

On  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Portugal  and  Spain,  for  instance,  it  is  I 

always  high-water  when  the  moon  is  in  the  north-east  and  south¬ 
west  and  low-water  when  the  moon  is  in  the  south-east  and 
north-west. 


I 


1  Book  1,  chap.  8. 


*  Book  1,  chaps,  iz,  ia. 


INTRODUCTION 


XXVII 


4.  By  using  the  relationship  between  the  lunar  cycle  and  solar 
time,  it  is  possible  to  know  exactly  how  the  tide  stands  “  wherever 
we  are,  either  inland  far  from  sea  or  coming  from  the  deep  sea 
in  search  of  land1.”  Thus  at  the  beginning  of  the  new  moon 
(i.e.  at  conjunction)  the  moon  and  the  sun  are  in  the  north-east 
and  so  high-tide  occurs  at  3  a.m.  24  hours  and  45  minutes  later 
the  moon  is  again  in  the  north-east,  but  the  sun  will  be  a  “  quarter 
point”  further  east,  i.e.  north-east  by  cast*,  and  so  high-tide 
will  occur  at  3.45  a.m.  On  the  following  day  the  moon  will  be 
in  the  north-east  at  4.30  a.m.,  i.e.  when  the  sun  is  east- north¬ 
east.  In  other  words  high-tide  comes  a  “quarter  point”  later 
every  day.  Accordingly,  Pacheco  says,  “  he  who  wishes  to  calculate 
the  tide  must  therefore  see  in  what  point  of  the  compass  the  sun 
is  and  then  count  the  number  of  days  which  have  passed  since 
the  conjunction,  counting  a  quarter  point  of  the  compass  for 
each  24  hours  up  to  15  days  or  less,  and  according  to  the  position 
of  the  moon  will  be  the  tide ...  3.”  Up  to  this  point  his  directions 
are  explicit  enough,  but  when  he  comes  to  the  question  of 
distributing  the  45  'minutes’  daily  time-lag  round  the  points  of 
the  compass,  he  seems  unable  to  grasp  the  implications  of  his 
own  argument.  Thus,  having  stated  that,  when  the  sun  and  moon 
are  in  conjunction,  low-water  occurs  off  the  coast  of  Spain  at 
9.0  a.m.  (w’hen,  according  to  his  reckoning,  the  sun  and  moon 
are  in  the  south-east),  he  goes  on  to  tell  us  that  high-tide  will 
occur  wrhen  the  sun  is  in  the  south-west,  i.e.  at  3.0  p.m.,  and 
the  next  low-tide  when  the  sun  is  in  the  north-west,  i.e.  at 
9.0  p.m.,  whereas  by  hypothesis,  high-tide  will  occur  at 
3.1 p.m.  and  low-tide  at  9.22$  p.m.  Apparently  he  did  not 
realise  that  anything  was  wrong  until  he  had  wrorked  round  the 
compass  points  to  the  east,  by  which  time,  presumably,  he  could 
see  that  his  method  of  reckoning  was  going  to  give  9.0  a.m.  for 
the  next  low- tide,  instead  of  9.45,  for  at  that  juncture  he  inter¬ 
polates  a  sentence  to  the  effect  that,  as  the  moon  is  45  minutes 
behind  the  sun,  it  will  no  longer  make  the  tide  at  the  same  time 

1  Book  I,  chap.  ix. 

*  The  sun,  theoretically,  goes  round  the  eight  points  of  the  compass  every 
24  hours:  therefore  it  passes  from  one  “quarter  point”  to  the  next  every 
45  minutes. 

3  Book  I,  chap.  12. 


xxvm 


INTRODUCTION 


as  on  the  previous  day.  It  is  not  until  he  comes  to  deal  with  the 
state  of  the  tide  when  the  sun  is  south-east  by  east  that  he 
assumes  the  45  minutes’  time-lag  to  be  in  operation1. 

However,  apart  from  a  few f  isolated  lapses  of  this  sort, 
Pacheco’s  treatment  of  nautical  matters  is  highly  meritorious. 
Altogether  the  Esmeraldo  deserves  a  much  more  prominent  place 
in  the  annals  of  nautical  history  than  it  has  so  far  been  awarded. 

THE  ESMERALDO  AND  THE  PORTUGUESE 
CONSPIRACY  OF  SILENCE 

It  has  been  shown  by  Dr  Jaime  Cortes3o3  and  others  that,  in 
pursuance  of  their  ambition  to  hold  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  of 
Guinea  and  the  adjacent  coasts  of  Africa,  successive  kings  of 
Portugal  decided  on  the  suppression  of  all  information  calculated 
to  excite  the  interest  and  jealousy  of  other  Powers.  Further, 
vessels  of  other  nations  were  prohibited  from  sailing  into  West 
African  waters.  Pacheco  himself  tells  us  of  an  expedition  made 
by  some  Flemings  in  1475  to  Mina  in  defiance  of  this  veto,  and 
adds  that  their  folly  was  suitably  rewarded,  “  for  God  gave  them 
a  bad  end3.” 

John  II  (reigned  1481-1495)  was  the  chief  instigator  in  all 
this,  using  his  energies  to  prevent  leakage  of  information  either 
from  printed  or  manuscript  sources,  just  at  a  time  when 
foreigners  were  seeking  by  every  means  to  acquire  it.  This, 
CortesSo  points  out,  accounts  for  the  almost  complete  silence 
of  Ruy  de  Pina — the  official  chronicler  of  John  II — on  matters 
of  discovery.  In  fact  after  1448,  the  last  year  embraced  by 
Zurara’s  Chronicle,  we  are  at  pains  to  discover  the  sequence  of 
events  in  exploration.  In  the  reign  of  Manuel  I,  especially  after 
the  return  of  Cabral  from  India,  the  vigilance  of  the  Portuguese 
government  was  intensified ;  it  was,  above  all,  anxious  to  prevent 
the  export  of  maps,  nautical  instructions  and  pilots’  observations. 
“  It  is  impossible  to  get  a  chart  of  this  voyage,”  wrote  an  Italian 
agent,  concerning  Cabral’s  expedition,  “because  the  King  has 

*  Book  1,  chap.  12,  last  paragraph. 

*  Vide  Lusitania,  Jan.  1924:  “The  National  Secret  of  the  Portuguese 
Discoveries  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.” 

3  Book  ii,  chap.  3. 


INTRODUCTION 


XXIX 


decreed  the  death  penalty  for  anyone  sending  one  abroad1.”  It 
is  also  said  that  navigating  charts  were  sometimes  only  lent  to 
navigators  by  the  India  House,  and  at  the  end  of  a  voyage  they 
had  to  be  returned  to  that  institution*. 

Very  clear  testimony  to  the  effectiveness  of  this  policy  of 
suppression  is  provided  by  fifteenth-century  cartography.  The 
case  of  Behaim’s  globe  is  fairly  typical.  It  has  been  shown  else- 
where3  that  the  only  known  map  bearing  any  resemblance  in 
its  West  African  nomenclature  to  the  globe  of  1492  is  the 
Martellus  map  of  about  14894 ;  secondly,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  detect  the  direct  influence  of  Portuguese  sailing  charts  either 
on  Behaim’s  nomenclature  or  on  his  delineation  of  the  coast  and, 
thirdly,  that  at  least  half  of  his  West  African  place-names  have 
no  known  source.  Now  if  they  had  a  bona  fide  source,  it  is  almost 
certain  that  they  must  have  been  derived  ultimately  from 
Portugal,  particularly  as  Behaim  was  intimately  associated  with 
the  life  of  that  country  from  1484  to  1490.  However,  if  this  were 
so,  it  is  difficult  to  see  why  these  names  should  have  remained 
entirely  unutilised  by  later  map-makers — a  difficulty  all  the 
greater,  if,  as  Behaim  averred,  he  accompanied  Diogo  C2o  on 
his  second  voyage,  where  the  information  would  have  been 
secured.  Have  we,  then,  to  assume  that  Behaim  invented 
50  per  cent,  of  his  nomenclature?  The  conclusion  appears  to 
be  inevitable,  but  in  the  light  of  the  Portuguese  conspiracy  of 
silence  such  a  fabrication  is  readily  understood.  In  Germany 
people  were  crying  out  for  an  up-to-date  picture  of  the  world 
that  should  incorporate  the  results  of  the  Portuguese  discoveries. 
Was  Behaim  to  confess  that  the  Portuguese  had  kept  back  the 
details,  or  was  he  to  invent  them?  The  desire  to  appear  before 
his  fellow-countrymen  as  a  successful  explorer  as  well  as  a  great 
traveller  may  have  dictated  the  answer. 

In  face  of  evidence  of  this  character  it  becomes  quite  feasible 
to  suppose  that  the  Esmeraldo  came  under  the  ban  of  the  censor, 
and  that  the  latter  part  of  the  work  may  after  all  have  been 

1  Historia  da  ColonisafUo  Portuguesa  do  Brasil,  vol.  11,  p.  227. 

*  Vide  E.  Prestage,  Portuguese  Pioneers,  p.  17 1. 

s  G.  H.  T.  Kimble:  “Some  Notes  on  Mediaeval  Cartography,”  Scottish 
Geographical  Magazine,  vol.  xux,  1933,  pp.  91  et  sexI- 

4  Brit.  Museum  Additional  MS.  15,760. 


XXX 


INTRODUCTION 


written  and  portions  subsequently  suppressed  in  the  interests  of 
national  policy.  Tampering  with  documents  was  by  no  means 
unknown;  it  is  now  held  by  certain  Portuguese  scholars  that 
even  Zurara’s  Chronicle  was  truncated1 * 3.  Whatever  the  true 
explanation  of  its  “unfinished”  condition*,  there  can  be  little 
reasonable  doubt  that  the  Esmeraldo  was  censored;  its  map  of 
the  world*  and  its  numerous  unique  sketches — “pintado  pella 
natural  ” — were  of  far  too  great  importance  to  remain  open  to 
public  inspection.  Some  scholars4,  indeed,  have  gone  as  far  as 
to  suppose  that  the  maps  were  extracted  of  set  purpose  from  the 
manuscript,  basing  their  opinion  on  the  absence  of  the  maps 
from  the  existing  copies  of  the  original ;  but  this  is  unwarrantable 
because  Barbosa  Machado,  who  saw  the  original  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  reports  that  it  contained  eighteen  illuminated  maps, 
besides  some  sketches*.  The  fact  that  Machado’s  reference  is 
almost  the  only  known  allusion  to  the  Esmeraldo  in  the  first 
250  years  of  its  history  is  perhaps  the  most  eloquent  testimony 
that  can  be  borne  to  the  success  of  “the  conspiracy  of  silence.” 


THE  MANUSCRIPTS  AND  PUBLISHED 
EDITIONS  OF  THE  ESMERALDO 

The  original  manuscript  of  the  Esmeraldo  has  been  lost.  How 
it  was  lost,  or  when,  is  unknown ;  it  was  still  in  existence  in  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  as  we  have  just  said.  Were  it 
not  for  the  fact  that  Barbosa  Machado  tells  us  that  it  was  housed 
in  the  library  of  the  Marqueses  of  Abrantes — situated  some 
seventy  miles  from  Lisbon — we  might  have  been  tempted  to 
attribute  its  disappearance  to  the  ravages  of  the  great  Lisbon 
earthquake  of  1755;  whatever  its  fate,  it  is  not  heard  of  again 

1  F-8-  A.  J.  da  Costa  PimpSo,  A  Cronica  de  Guin6,  vide  E.  Prestage,  op.  cit. 

P-  169. 

*  I*  i®  just  possible  that  there  is  an  entirely  different  explanation,  and  that 
Pacheco  was  the  victim  of  jealous  intrigue;  for  in  book  11,  chap.  9,  he  com¬ 
plains  of  “railers,  backbiters  and  slanderers”  who  were  seeking  to  frustrate 
his  design. 

3  Book  1,  chap.  5. 

4  E.g.  E.  Prestage,  op.  cit.  p.  171. 

3  Bibhoteca Lusitania,  vide  A.  CortesSo,  Cartografia  e  Cartografos  Portugueses 
dot  Seculos  XV  e  XVI,  vol.  11,  chap.  8,  pp.  105  et  stq. 


INTRODUCTION 


XXXI 


after  Machado’s  time.  There  are,  however,  two  copies  extant, 
one  in  the  Evora  library1,  and  the  other  in  the  Biblioteca  Nacional 
at  Lisbon3.  The  Evora  manuscript,  according  to  the  authority 
of  Gabriel  Pereira  and  Pedro  de  Azevedo,  belongs  to  the  reign 
of  John  V,  that  is,  to  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century*. 
Raphael  de  Azevedo  Basto,  on  the  other  hand,  judges  it  to  be 
in  a  late  sixteenth-century  hand,  and  to  have  belonged  to  the 
Bishop  of  Oporto,  Rodrigo  da  Cunha4.  The  Lisbon  manuscript, 
made  on  paper  of  the  Lous2  mill  (founded  in  1748),  belongs 
on  palasographic  grounds  to  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  a  note  at  the  end,  written  in  a  still  later  hand,  it  is 
stated  that  the  manuscript  appears  to  have  been  copied  from  the 
copy  belonging  to  the  aforesaid  Bishop  of  Oporto5.  This  second 
copy,  purchased  by  the  Biblioteca  Nacional  in  1867,  is  thought 
by  Basto  to  be  the  same  as  that  which  figures  in  the  catalogue 

cxv 

of  the  Evora  library — compiled  by  Sr.  Rivara — under  Cod. 
with  a  note  to  the  effect  that  on  September  4th,  1844,  it  was  taken 
from  the  library  by  order  of  one  of  the  King’s  ministers  and  was 
not  restored.  Basto  believes,  furthermore,  that  at  no  time  have 
there  existed  more  than  the  two  copies  cited  in  the  Evora 
catalogue6. 

Of  the  two  copies  the  older  is  reckoned  to  be  the  more  faithful ; 
such  errors  as  it  contains  are  due  in  all  probability  to  obscurities 
in  the  original  text.  The  Lisbon  copy,  in  addition  to  perpetuating 
the  errors  of  the  earlier  version,  contains  many  others  resulting 
from  careless  transcription.7  For  this  reason  the  Evora  manuscript 
is  used  as  the  basis  of  the  following  translation;  fortunately, 
however,  none  of  the  errors,  whether  misspellings  or  mis¬ 
interpretations,  is  sufficiently  serious  to  obliterate  the  sense  of 
the  original. 

As  far  as  I  am  aware,  there  have  been  only  two  complete 
editions  of  the  Esmeraldo  up  to  the  present  time,  and  both  of 
these  are  in  Portuguese.  The  first  appeared  in  1892  to  com- 

1  Cod.  x  vol.  fol.,  100  leaves. 

*  Cod.  B,  17,  1  vol.,  80  leaves. 

J  Vide  Epiphanio  da  Silva  Dias,  Esmeraldo. . . edifSo  cntica,  i9°5»  P-  5* 

4  Esmeraldo. .  .edi^o  commemorativa,  1892,  p.  i L 

5  Ibid.  6  Ibid.  1  Vide  Frontispiece. 


XXX11 


INTRODUCTION 


memorate  the  four-hundredth  anniversary  of  Columbus’s  dis¬ 
covery  of  America.  It  was  edited  by  Basto  and  contains  a  fairly 
lengthy  introduction.  Besides  printing  the  manuscript,  though 
with  scant  regard  for  accuracy,  Basto  collated  a  large  number 
of  documents  bearing  upon  the  life  and  work  of  Pacheco ;  some 
of  these  are  here  reproduced  in  facsimile.  The  second  edition 
is  the  work  of  Epiphanio  da  Silva  Dias  and  was  published  in 
1905.  Much  less  lavish  in  design  than  its  predecessor,  it  is  a 
much  more  scholarly  work;  of  particular  critical  value  are  the 
footnotes,  which,  among  other  things,  call  attention  to  the  verbal 
discrepancies  between  the  Evora  and  Lisbon  manuscripts.  The 
text  is  universally  adjudged  to  be  reliable  and,  whenever  in 
doubt,  it  has  been  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  the  present 
work. 


SELECT  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A.  TEXTS 

Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  8th  and  9th  editions.  London,  1920,  1930. 

- Part  II,  8th  edition.  London,  1930. 

- Part  III,  9th  edition.  London,  1929. 

Ailly,  Pierre  d\  Tractatus  de  Imagine  Mundi.  Louvain,  1480?. 

Alfraganus.  Rudimenta  Astronomiea.  Translation  by  J.  Hispalcnsis. 
Paris,  1546. 

Bacon,  Roger.  Opus  Majus.  Translation  by  R.  B.  Burke.  Phila¬ 
delphia,  1928. 

Barbot,  Jean.  A  Description  of  the  Coasts  of  North  and  South  Guinea. 
London,  1732. 

Barlow,  Roger.  Brief  Surnme  of  Geographic.  Hakluyt  Society,  1932. 
Barros,  Jo5o  de.  Asia.  Lisbon,  1552. 

Burton,  Richard.  Abeokuta  and  the  Camaroons  Mountains.  London, 
1863. 

Cadamosto,  Luigi  di.  Relation  des  Voyages  d  la  c6te  occidental 
d’Afrique  d’Alvise  de  Ca'da  Moste ,  1455-7.  Translation  by 
J.  Temporal.  Paris,  1895. 

Cortes,  Martin.  The  Art  of  Navigation.  Translation  by  R.  Eden. 
London,  1589. 

Dames,  M.  L.  (Editor).  The  Book  of  Duarte  Barbosa.  Hakluyt 
Society,  1918. 

Dapper,  Olfert.  Naukeurige  Beschrijvinge  der  Afrikaensche  Getvesten. 
Amsterdam,  1666. 

Edrisi.  Description  de  VAfrique  et  de  UEspagne. .  ..Translation  by 
R.  Dozy  and  M.  J.  de  Goeje.  1866. 

Galvao,  Antonio.  Discoveries  of  the  World.  Hakluyt  Society,  1862. 
Goes,  Damiao  de.  Cronica  de  Principe  D.Joao.  Lisbon,  1567. 
Gomes,  Diogo.  “Die  Handelsverbindungen  der  Portugiesen  mit 
Timbuktu  im  XV.  Jahrhundertc,”  by  F.  Kunstmann  in  the 
Abhandlungen  der  111.  Classe  der  K.  Bayerischen  Akademie  der  Wissen- 
schaften.  1850. 

Harris,  John  (Editor).  Navigantium  atque  Itinerantium  Bibliotheca:  or 
a  compleat  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels.  London,  1705. 
Hutchinson,  T.  J.  Ten  Years *  Wanderings  among  the  Ethiopians. 
London,  1861. 

Isidore  of  Seville.  Etymologiae - Augsburg,  1472. 

Jaime,  Duke  of  Bragan^a  (Editor).  Algutis  Documentos  do  Archivo 
National. .  .Acer ca  das  Navegapdes  e  Conquistas  Portuguezas. 
Lisbon,  1892. 

Kingsley,  Mary.  West  African  Studies.  London,  1899. 


xxxiv  SELECT  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Leo  Africanus.  The  History  and  Description  of  Africa.  Hakluyt 
Society,  1896. 

Malfante,  Antonio.  Relation  de  Voyage  datde  du  Touat...en  1447- 
Translation  by  Charles  de  la  Rondure.  1919. 

Markham,  Sir  C.  R.  (Editor).  The  Journal  of  Columbus.  Hakluyt 
Society,  1893. 

- The  Book  of  the  Knowledge  of  all  Kingdoms - Hakluyt  Society, 

1912. 

Mediterranean  Pilot,  Part  I,  4th  edition.  London,  1 905-1  r. 

Mela,  Pomponius.  De  Situ  Orbis.  Venice,  1471. 

Nunes,  Pedro.  Tratado ..  .da  carta  de  mar ear.  Lisbon,  1537. 

Orosius,  Paulus.  Historia  adversos  paganos.  Cologne,  1527. 

Osorio,  Jeronimo.  The  History  of  the  Portuguese  during  the  Reign 
of  Emmanuel.  Translation  by  J.  Gibbs.  London,  1752. 

Pacheco  Pereira,  Duarte.  Esmeraldo  de  Situ  Orbis.  EdifSo  com- 
memorativa  by  R.  E.  da  Azevedo  Basto.  Lisbon,  1892. 

- Esmeraldo  de  Situ  Orbis.  Edi9ao  critica  annotada  by  E.  da  Silva 

Dias.  Lisbon,  2905. 

Perez  de  Valcntia,  Jacobus.  Expositions  in  psalmos  Davidicos.  1518. 

Pina,  Ruy  de.  Cronica  de  D.Jo&o  II.  Lisbon,  1790. 

Pius  II.  Opera  Geographica  et  Historica.  Helmstadt,  1699. 

Plinius  Secundus,  Caius.  Natural  History.  Translation  by  J.  Bos- 
tock  and  H.  T.  Riley.  London,  1848. 

Ptolemy,  Claudius.  Geographia.  Rome,  1507. 

Purchas'  Pilgrims.  Maclchosc  edition.  Glasgow,  1905. 

Regiomontanus,  Johannes.  Ephemerides.  1474?. 

Sacrobosco,  Johannes  de.  Tractatus  da  Sphaera.  Wittenburg,  1538. 

SerrSo  Pimentel,  Luis.  Arte Practica  da  Navegar.  Lisbon,  1681. 

Solinus,  C.  Julius.  Collectanea  Rerum  Memorabilium.  Rome,  1474?. 

Strabo,  Marcus.  Geography.  Translation  by  H.  L.  Jones.  London, 
1917-32. 

Vincent  of  Beauvais.  Speculum  Historiale.  Strasburg,  1473. 

Zacuto,  Abraham.  Almanack  perpetuum.  Venice,  1502. 

Zurara,  Eannes  (Gomes)  de.  Chronicle  of  the  Discovery  and  Conquest 
of  Guinea.  Hakluyt  Society,  1896. 


B.  SECONDARY  WORKS 

Angel,  F.  Les  Serpents  de  TAfrique  Occidental  Fran faise.  Paris,  193  3. 
Arcin,  A.  Histoire  de  la  Guinde  fran faise.  Paris,  1911. 

Babcock,  W.  H.  Legendary  Isles  of  the  Atlantic.  New  York,  1922. 
Bellefond,  Villaut  de.  Relation  des  Cdtes  d’Afrique  appelies  Guinde. 
Paris,  1669. 

Bensaude,  J.  L'Astronomie  nautique  au  Portugal  d  Tdpoque  des  grandes 
decoiw  tries.  Bern,  19x2. 


SELECT  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


XXXV 


'Portuguese  Roteiros,  1500-1700.”  Mariner's  Mirror, 


Boxer,  C.  R. 

1934. 

Cardinal!,  A.  W.  The  Gold  Coast.  Census  Office,  London,  1932. 

CortesSo,  A.  Cartografia  e  Cartografos  Portugeses  dos  Seculos  XV  e 
XVI.  Lisbon,  1935. 

Cortesao,  J.  The  National  Secret  of  the  Portuguese  Discoveries  in  the 
15  th  Century.  Lusitania,  1924. 

Costa,  F.  da.  Marinharia  dos  Descobrimentos.  Lisbon,  1934. 
Delafosse,  M.  The  Negroes  of  Africa.  Washington,  1931. 

Ditmars,  R.  L.  The  S rushes  of  the  World.  New  York,  1931. 

Dubois,  F.  Tombouctou  la  Mystdrieuse.  Paris,  1897. 

Forbes,  H.  O.  A  Handbook  of  the  Primates.  London,  1894. 

Fraser,  Sir  J.  G.  The  Golden  Bough.  London,  1907—15. 

Kendrew,  W.  G.  Climates  of  the  Continents.  Oxford,  1922. 

Kimble,  G.  H.  T.  w  Some  Notes  on  Mediaeval  Cartography.” 
Scottish  Geographical  Magazine,  1933. 

Le  Clercq,  H.  L'Afrique  Chrdtienne.  1904. 

Major,  R.  H.  The  Discoveries  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator  and  their 
results.  London,  1876. 

Peres,  D.  (Editor).  Historia  de  Portugal.  Barcelos,  1928-  . 

Prestage,  E.  Portuguese  Pioneers.  London,  1933. 

Ravenstein,  W.  "The  Voyages  of  D.  C2o  and  B.  Dias.”  Royal 
Geographical  journal,  1900. 

Ronciere,  Charles  de  la.  La  Ddcouverte  de  VAfrique  au  Moyen  Aee 
Cairo,  X924-5.  ’ 

Roth,  H.L.  Great  Benin:  Its  Customs,  Arts  and  Horrors.  Halifax,  1903. 
Sclater,  W.  L.  The  Mammals  of  South  Africa.  London,  1900. 

Silva,  L.  P.  da.  Historia  da  ColonisafUo  Portuguesa  do  Brasil.  Porto 
1921.  ’ 

Stark,  A.  and  Sclater,  W.  L.  The  Birds  of  South  Africa.  1900. 

Taylor,  E.  G.  R.  "  Pactolus :  River  of  Gold.”  Scottish  Geographical 
Magazine,  1927. 

Viterbo,  S.  Trabalhos  nauticos  dos  Portugueses  nos  Seculos  XVI  e  XVII 
Lisbon,  1898. 

Warmington,  E.  and  Carey,  M.  Ancient  Explorers.  1929. 

Weeks,  J.  H.  Among  Congo  Cannibals.  London,  1912. 

Zuckerman,  S.  The  Social  Life  of  Monkeys  and  Apes.  London,  1931. 


\ 


PROLOGUE 


The  beginning  of  the  Esmeraldo  De  Situ  Orbis, 
made  and  composed  by  duarte  pacheco,  Knight 
of  the  Household  of  the  late  King  John  II  of 
Portugal ,  addressed  to  the  most  high  and  mighty  Prince  and 
most  Serene  Lord  King  Manuel ,  our  sovereign ,  first  of  this 
name  to  reign  in  Portugal. 

Most  high  and  mighty  prince  and  serene  lord,  we 
could  not  escape  censure  were  we  to  allow  to  fall  into  oblivion 
without  record  the  worthy  fame  of  our  forefathers  and  [other] 
excellent  men  who  deserve  to  be  held  in  perpetual  remembrance; 
for  the  knowledge  of  their  great  deeds  increases  the  glory  of  your 
name,  even  as  in  noble  works  your  Highness  excels  them.  And 
inasmuch  as  the  ancient  writers,  from  whose  works  we  have 
received  instruction,  treated  of  the  discovery  of  the  sphericity 
of  the  earth  and  of  the  sea,  concerning  which  they  held  various 
opinions,  and  inasmuch  as  the  present  time  is  appropriate  for 
dealing  with  this  subject,  your  Highness  must  know  that  Marcus 
Strabo  of  Cappadocia,  a  very  ancient  writer  and  of  great  authority, 
says,  almost  in  the  middle  of  the  first  book  of  his  Cosmography1 : 
“it  will  suffice  if,  eliminating  further  discussion,  we  write  only 
of  the  men  who  relate  their  navigation  to  Ethiopia.”  Some  say 
that  Menelaus*,  making  his  way  round  by  Calez3,  took  his  course 
as  far  as  the  region  of  India ;  and  the  time  agrees  with  the  length 

*  Geography ,  book  :,  chap.  2,  para.  31. 

1  According  to  the  Homeric  tradition  (Odyssey,  book  tv,  passim ),  when 
Menelaus  was  driven  out  to  sea  in  attempting  to  double  Cape  Malea,  a  part 
of  his  fleet  was  carried  to  Crete  and  the  rest,  with  Menelaus  himself,  was 
driven  to  Egypt.  While  there,  Menelaus  visited  the  countries  that  surround 
the  eastern  head  of  the  Mediterranean :  he  tells  Tclemachus  that  he  wandered 
to  Cyprus,  Phoenicia,  Ethiopia,  the  land  of  the  Erembi  and  Libya.  Exactly 
what  significance  can  be  attached  to  the  mention  of  Ethiopia  it  is  impossible 
to  say,  but  seeing  that  nothing  is  said  about  the  Sahara,  the  Nile  or  the 
West  African  coast,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  Menelaus  anticipated 
n  any  way  the  explorations  of  later  times. 

*  I.e.  Cadiz. 


HK 


1 


2 


PROLOGUE 


of  the  journey  which  is  given  in  Homer1 * *:  “I  came  back  with 
ships  in  the  eighth  year."  Others  say  that  he  made  his  way 
through  the  isthmus,  that  is,  between  the  two  shores  of  the 
Arabian  Gulf ;  and  Caius  Pliny,  a  Roman  senator  and  an  excellent 
writer,  in  the  second  book  of  his  Natural  History ,  chapter  69*, 
states  that  Hanno  the  Carthaginian  sailed  from  Calez  to  the 
Arabian  Gulf.  Further,  these  authors  say3  that  Eudoxus,  fleeing 
from  King  Latirus  of  Alexandria,  sailed  from  the  Arabian  Gulf 
to  Calez ;  and  Pomponius  Mela4,  a  very  ancient  writer  born  near 
Gibraltar,  also  affirms  this,  and  states  moreover  near  the  end  of 
the  third  book  of  his  De  Situ  Orbis  that  this  Eudoxus  was  the 
first  to  bring  fire  and  its  use  to  the  barbarous  peoples  of  Ethiopia, 
to  whom  it  was  till  then  unknown ;  and  some  of  the  other  cosmo- 
graphers  agree  as  to  this.  However  this  navigation  and  its  use 
was  lost  to  all  the  men  of  old  time  in  such  wise  that  during 
1500  years  or  more  it  was  altogether  forgotten  and  dead.  A  new 
beginning  was  made  by  the  most  excellent  prince,  a  prudent  and 
virtuous  man,  the  Prince  Henry,  Duke  of  Viseu  and  Lord  of 
Covilhan,  your  late  uncle,  who,  illuminated  by  the  grace  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  and  moved  by  a  divine  mystery,  at  great  cost  to  his 
estate  and  to  the  lives  of  the  Portuguese  in  his  household, 
ordered  the  island  of  Madeira  to  be  discovered  and  peopled.  In 
addition  he  discovered  land  in  Guinea  (formerly  known  as 
Ethiopia)  from  Capes  Nam  and  Bojador  to  Serra  Lyoa,  distant 
from  these  realms  650  leagues  and  lying  8°  north  of  the  Equator ; 
owing  to  him  it  comes  about  that  a  great  part  of  the  Ethiopians, 
who  were  almost  beasts  in  human  form,  cut  off  from  divine 
worship,  are  learning  the  holy  catholic  faith  and  are  daily  being 
converted  to  the  Christian  religion.  In  order  that  this  enterprise 
might  be  carried  out  with  greater  security  and  blessing  it  was 
first  entrusted  to  him  by  the  Holy  Fathers  of  Rome,  Popes 
Eugene  IV,  Martin  V  and  Sixtus  IV,  and  by  others  who  suc¬ 
ceeded  them,  who  decreed  that  the  said  Prince  and  all  the  lawful 

1  Odyssey,  book  iv,  II.  81-2.  Judging  from  the  Homeric  text  it  would 
appear  that  Pacheco  is  quoting  Strabo  on  Homer,  not  Homer  himself. 

*  Actually  chap.  67. 

*  Natural  History,  book  11,  chap.  169;  Geography,  book  n,  chap.  3,  paras. 

4  and  5. 

*  De  Situ  Orbis,  book  Ill,  chap.  10. 


EXPLORATION  UNDER  JOHN  II  3 

Kings  of  Portugal  who  came  after  him  should  for  ever  possess 
from  the  Capes  Nam  and  Bojador  all  the  islands,  harbours, 
commerce,  traffic,  fisheries  and  conquests  of  the  whole  of  Guinea 
discovered  or  to  be  discovered  on  the  eastern  and  southern 
coast,  including  India;  with  innumerable  excommunications, 
prohibitions  and  interdictions  forbidding  any  other  princes, 
lordships  or  communities  to  have  any  part  in  the  said  regions, 
as  is  set  forth  at  greater  length  in  the  bulls1  and  letters  granted 
to  the  said  Prince  and  to  the  Kings  of  Portugal,  which  are  kept 
in  the  Torre  do  Tombo  in  this  city  of  Lisbon.  On  the  death  of 
this  holy  Prince,  his  nephew  King  Afonso  V  continued  this 
conquest  and  discovery.  In  the  year  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
1460  on  the  13th  day  of  November  the  virtuous  Prince  Henry 
died,  and  after  his  death  the  excellent  King  Afonso  V  ordered 
the  discovery  to  be  continued  from  Serra  Lyoa  (where  he  left 
off)a  all  along  the  coast  of  Malagueta  and  Mina  from  the  R.  dos 
Escravos  to  Cabo  de  Caterina,  a  distance  of  some  650  leagues 
beyond  Serra  Lyoa. 

After  the  discovery  of  all  these  regions  and  provinces  and  the 
death  of  King  Afonso,  the  most  serene  Prince  King  John  II,  his 
son,  continued  this  enterprise;  he  is  worthy  of  eternal  re¬ 
membrance,  for,  in  his  great  desire  to  increase  the  commerce 
and  wealth  of  these  realms,  he  ordered*  the  discovery  of  the 
islands  of  S.  Thom6  and  S.  Antonio  and  peopled  them  as  a  base 
for  the  navigation  to  India,  which  we  must  hold  he  would  have 
discovered  had  Our  Lord  granted  him  longer  life.  Further  he 
founded  the  city  of  S.  Jorze  da  Mina,  which  is  now  so  valuable 
to  your  Highness  and  to  your  realms.  To  avoid  prolixity  I  omit 
the  details  of  many  discoveries  which  this  glorious  prince 
ordered*  me4  and  others  of  his  captains  to  make  at  many  places 
and  rivers  along  the  coast  of  Guinea,  the  interior  of  which  was 
unknown  in  the  days  of  Prince  Henry  and  King  Afonso.  He 
thus  discovered  [the  coastline]  from  Cabo  de  Caterina,  where 

1  Zurara  reproduces  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  important  of  these  bulls 
(dated  5  January  1443)  in  his  Chronicle  of  Guinea  (Hakluyt  Society),  chap.  15. 

1  This  is  the  usual  belief,  based  on  the  Cadamosto  narrative,  but  Dr  Jaime 
Cortesio  is  of  the  opinion  that  Cape  Palmas  was  reached.  Vide  Historic  de 
Portugal  (edited  by  D.  Peres),  vol.  in,  p.  382. 

J  Portuguese  mandou.  *  Vide  Introduction,  p.  xiii. 


1-2 


4 


PROLOGUE 


his  father  left  off,  to  Cabo  de  Boa  Esperan£a,  which  is  in  the 
latitude  of  34^°  south,  and  from  there  on  to  Penedo  das  Fontes, 
which  we  also  know  as  Ilheo  da  Cruz,  160  leagues  beyond  that 
cape.  Thus  this  excellent  prince  discovered  in  all  760  leagues  of 
coast,  including  the  kingdom  of  Maniconguo1  and  many  other 
peoples ;  and  the  navigation  to  these  lands  is  stormy  and  difficult. 
From  this  [discovery]  arose  the  hope  and  will  to  discover  India, 
which  has  now  been  made  known  to  your  Majesty. 

All  these  things  are  true,  most  serene  Prince,  and  many  of 
them  happened  in  our  day.  But  what  shall  I  say  of  your 
Highness  and  of  the  divine  grace  which  the  supreme  Creator 
shed  upon  your  spirit,  endowing  you  with  greater  understanding, 
knowledge  and  fortitude  than  all  your  predecessors,  ancient  and 
modern?3. . .  For  in  the  second  year  of  your  reign  1497  a.d.  and 
the  28  th  year  of  your  age  your  Highness  ordered  the  discovery 
to  be  continued  from  Ilheo  da  Cruz3,  where  King  John  left  off, 
and  without  counting  the  great  and  heavy  expense,  a  portion  of 
Ethiopia  under  Egypt4  was  discovered,  which  from  the  earliest 
times  to  our  day  was  utterly  unknown.  Your  captains  discovered 
anew  the  great  mine  which  some  hold  to  be  that  of  Ophir3  and 
is  now  called  £ofala,  whence  the  most  wise  King  Solomon 

‘  Vide  infra,  book  m,  chap.  2. 

1  There  it  a  small  lacuna  in  the  text  at  this  point. 

*  This  was  the  most  easterly  point  reached  by  Dias — 25  leagues  west  of 
the  Rio  do  Infante.  '  4  Cf.  book  I,  chap.  27. 

5  The  theory  that  Ophir  was  a  locality  on  or  near  the  East  African  coast 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sofala  is  now  almost  without  supporters.  "The 
whole  argument,"  says  Schoff  ( Periplus  of  the  Erytkreean  Sea,  p.  97),  "was 
pure  assumption,  as  there  is  no  reference  in  ancient  literature  to  any  know* 
ledge  of  the  African  coast  within  600  miles  of  the  point  of  Sofala."  Some 
have  thought  to  establish  the  identity  of  Ophir  and  Zimbabwe  in  Mashona* 
land,  but  careful  investigation  of  the  site  by  Dr  Randall  Maclver  and  other 
archaeologists  has  resulted  in  depriving  the  ruined  city  of  any  claim  to  great 
antiquity.  It  is  now  widely  held  that  Ophir  was  located  on  or  near  the  Oman 
Coast  of  Arabia  (vide  “  The  Expanse  of  the  Earth  as  known  in  Old  Testament 
Times,”  by  the  present  writer  in  the  Journal  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Victoria 
Institute,  vol.  lxvii,  p.  210).  English  writers  in  Pacheco’s  day  placed  Ophir 
near  the  Moluccas  (vide  Robert  Thome’s  map  of  1527).  The  “great  mine" 
Pacheco  speaks  of  was  not  at  Sofala.  This  town  was  simply  the  Arab  and 
negro  emporium  for  the  barter  of  gold  that  came  from  mines  in  the  interior 
(cf.  St  Jorze  da  Mina).  Enciso,  vide  Barlow,  Brief  Summe  of  Geographie 
(Hakluyt  Society),  is  nearer  the  truth  when  he  speaks  of  "  the  people  of  the 
country  brought  thider  ( i.e .  to  Sofala)  moche  golde. . p.  109.  Cf.  The  Booh 
of  Duarte  Barbosa,  edited  by  M.  L.  Dames,  vol.  1,  chap.  4  (Hakluyt  Society). 


DISCOVERY  OF  INDIA 


5 

according  to1 . . .  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  third  book  of  Kings1 
and  the  eighth  chapter  of  the  second  book  of  Paralipomenon^, 
drew  420  talents  of  gold  with  which  he  built  the  holy  temple  at 
Jerusalem.  And  further  at  your  command  a  great  portion  of  the 
sea  was  discovered  until  the  province  of  Maabaar*,  known  as 
Lower  India,  wTas  revealed.  Here  many  great  cities  and  notable 
towns  were  discovered,  among  them  the  ruined  city  of  Malipor*, 
where  we  believe  is  the  holy  sepulchre  of  the  blessed  apostle 
St  Thomas  and  where  Our  Lord  has  performed  many  miracles. 

Among  all  the  western  princes  of  Europe  God  chose  out  your 
Highness  to  receive  this  blessing  and  possess  the  tributes  of  the 
barbarian  kings  and  princes  of  the  East.  Rome  in  the  time  of 
her  prosperity,  when  she  ruled  a  great  part  of  the  world,  could 
never  thus  make  them  tributary;  on  the  contrary,  fighting  for 
their  independence,  they  slew  Marcus  Crassus,  a  very  brave 
captain,  killing  20,000  of  his  army  and  taking  10,000  prisoners6 ; 
and  now  by  divine  sanction  and  special  grace  your  Highness 
rules  over  ail,  the  path  of  your  knights  extending  through  the 

’  A  small  lacuna  at  this  point. 

1  In  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  versions  of  the  Bible,  the  title  of  First 
and  Second  Book  of  Kings  was  given  to  the  Books  of  Samuel,  and  the  Books 
of  the  Kings  (so  called  in  the  Hebrew  version)  were  known  as  the  Third  Book 
of  Kings  (the  two  books  forming  a  unit).  The  passage  referred  to  is  I  Kings 
ix.  28. 

J  The  Septuagint  name  for  the  Books  of  the  Chronicles,  the  word  denoting 
that  they  are  supplementary  to  the  preceding  historical  books.  The  passage 
referred  to  is  II  Chronicles  viii.  18. 

4  I.e.  Malabar.  In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  the  name  was 
commonly  applied  to  both  the  East  and  West  coasts  of  Southern  India,  vide 
T.  Bowrcy,  The  Countries  round  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  1669-1679,  p.  6  (Hakluyt 
Society). 

5  Early  ecclesiastical  legends  going  back  to  the  third  century  a.d.  affirm 
that  the  Apostle  St  Thomas  preached  Christianity  in  the  domains  of  one 
Gondophemes,  who  ruled  over  an  extensive  realm  in  the  Kandahar  country, 
where  the  Apostle  was  martyred.  Another  group  of  traditions  alleges  that  the 
same  apostle  was  martyred  at  MailSpur  near  Madras.  Some  writers  have  tried 
to  reconcile  the  two  stories  in  some  measure  by  guessing  that  St  Thomas  may 
have  first  visited  Kandahar  and  then  gone  to  the  Peninsula.  The  evidence 
does  not  permit  us  to  come  to  any  certain  conclusion.  Cf.  The  Book  of  Duarte 
Barbosa,  vol.  II,  chap.  99  (Hakluyt  Society). 

6  The  reference  is  to  the  disastrous  Roman  campaign  against  the  Parthians 
in  the  spring  of  53  B.c.  Aa  a  result  of  the  battle  of  Carrhae  on  the  River 
Belik  in  Upper  Mesopotamia,  only  10,000  of  Crassus’s  44,000  men  ever 
returned  to  Syria.  The  10,000  prisoners  were  settled  at  Merv  to  keep  the 
Parthian  frontier.  It  was  one  of  the  worst  defeats  sustained  by  the  Roman  arms. 


6 


PROLOGUE 


lands  and  seas  of  India  and  the  coasts  of  Asia  as  far  as  the 
conquests  of  Alexander.  The  valiant  advance  of  the  Portuguese 
arms  and  fleet,  which  by  your  command  and  power  perform  such 
mighty  deeds,  so  augments  your  glorious  fame  that  it  sounds 
through  the  whole  of  Europe  and  Africa,  Arabia,  Persia,  through 
the  lands  of  the  Elamites,  Babylonians,  Chaldeans,  Medes, 
Assyrians,  Parthians,  Phoenicians  and  the  peoples  of  Palestine; 
it  even  penetrates  to  the  very  distant  and  ferocious  peoples  of 
Cithas1  and  the  most  wealthy  kingdoms  of  India.  We  may 
therefore  rightly  assert  that  the  glory  of  your  victories  and  praise 
of  your  name  and  your  mighty  navigation  and  conquests  exceed 
those  of  Menelaus  and  Hanno  of  Carthage  and  Eudoxus,  greatly 
praised  and  glorified  by  ancient  writers,  as  of  all  the  kings  and 
princes  who  preceded  you.  For  in  a  short  space  of  time  your 
Highness  discovered  nearly  1 500  leagues  beyond  the  discoveries 
of  all  the  ancients  and  moderns,  unknown  and  unnavigated  by 
any  nations  of  our  West.  And  now,  for  the  greater  safety  of  this 
navigation,  it  is  well  that  your  Highness  should  order  the  dis¬ 
covery  and  exploration  of  the  coast  from  Ilheo  da  Cruz,  since 
at  its  first  discovery  it  was  made  known  in  general  and  not  in 
detail;  and  because  your  Highness  informed  me  that  you  wished 
to  entrust  this  to  me,  I  have  undertaken  a  book  of  cosmography 
and  navigation,  of  which  this  is  the  preface.  The  book  will  be 
divided  into  five  books ;  the  first  will  treat  of  the  discoveries  of 
the  virtuous  Prince  Henry,  the  second  of  those  of  the  excellent 
King  Afonso,  the  third  of  those  of  the  most  serene  King  John  as 
far  as  Ilheo  da  Cruz,  as  I  have  said ;  the  fourth  and  fifth  will  deal 
with  the  glorious  achievements  of  your  Highness,  which  in 
extent  and  quality  exceed  those  of  all  the  other  princes.  The 
former  of  these  books  will  begin  at  Ilheo  da  Cruz  and  end  at 
Cabo  de  Guardafune*  at  the  entrance  of  the  Arabian  Gulf  3,. . . 
and  so  on  to  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  whole  of  India.  This  is 
the  order  and  subject  matter  of  the  five  books,  and  they  will  not 
only  be  necessary  for  the  prosecution  of  this  navigation  and 

1  I.e.  Scythia. 

*  I.e.  Cape  Guardafui. 

*  I.e.  Red  Sea.  There  is  a  lacuna  at  this  point.  Judging  by  the  context  it 
must  have  contained  originally  some  such  words  as  “and  the  second  book 
will  begin  at  the  entrance  of  the  Arabian  Gulf.” 


SCOPE  OF  THE  ESMERALDO 


7 

commerce,  but  will  ensure  to  our  heirs  and  successors  an  eternal 
memory  and  remembrance  by  which  they  may  know  your 
excellent  deeds,  so  worthy  of  glorious  immortality.  Yet  what 
eloquence  can  be  so  matchless  as  perfectly  to  set  forth  the 
measure  of  the  great  achievements  of  our  Emperor  Manuel? 
For  surely  Marcus  Tullius,  the  most  excellent  orator  of  the 
Romans,  and  Homer  and  Demosthenes,  the  principal  orators 
among  the  Greeks,  would  fear  to  set  their  hands  to  the  descrip¬ 
tion  of  achievements  of  such  importance ;  but  I  leave  all  that  to 
the  historian  of  your  reign.  Here  I  hope  to  deal  at  length  with 
that  which  appertains  to  cosmography  and  navigation;  and 
therefore  I  will  first  briefly  mention  some  of  the  greater  circles1 * 3, 
and  the  size  of  the  earth  and  of  the  sea  and  which  of  these  is  the 
greater,  and  I  will  rapidly  describe  the  greatness  of  Africa  and 
of  Asia,  where  your  victorious  arms  flourish  in  the  east  and  in 
the  west.  I  will  limit  myself  to  these  two*  [continents],  the 
interior  I  will  only  briefly  describe,  but  the  coast  and  all  that 
concerns  navigation  and  cosmography  I  will  deal  with  at  greater 
length ;  thus  all  the  routes  will  be  stated,  namely  the  position  of 
places  and  promontories  in  relation  to  one  another,  in  order  that 
this  work  may  have  an  ordered  basis  and  that  the  coast  may  be 
navigated  in  greater  safety :  similarly  the  landmarks  and  shallows, 
for  these  are  essential ;  and  the  soundings,  both  their  depths  and 
the  kind  of  bottom,  whether  it  be  mud  or  sand  or  rock  or  gravel 
or  snags  or  shingle,  and  the  distance  of  the  soundings  from  land : 
similarly  the  tides,  whether  they  flow  NE  and  SW  as  in  our 
Spain?,  or  N  and  S  or  E  and  W  or  NW  and  SE,  which  it  is 
essential  to  know  in  order  to  be  able  to  enter  and  leave  the  bars 

1  According  to  medneval  and  renaissance  theory  the  sphere  was  divisible 
into  a  number  of  circles.  Martin  Cortes,  for  instance,  in  his  Art  of  Navigation 
(translated  by  R.  Eden),  chap.  9,  says:  “The  sphere  is  compounded  of  ten 
circles  imagined.  And  (as  saith  John  dc  Sacrobosco  in  his  boke  of  the  Sphere) 
sixe  of  them  are  greater  and  foure  lesse.  The  greater  circle  is  that  which 
devideth  the  sphere  into  two  cquall  partes  and  hath  his  centre  with  the 
centre  of  it.  These  are  the  Equinoctiall  [i.e.  the  Equator],  the  Zodiac,  the  two 
Coluri,  the  Horizon  and  the  Meridian.  The  lesser  circle  is  that  that  devideth 
the  sphere  into  two  uncquall  partes.  These  are  the  two  Tropykes  and  two 
Polar  circles.”  Cf.  R.  Barlow,  Brief  Summe  of  Geographie  (Hakluyt  Society), 

P-  3; 

*  Lacuna.  The  sense  seems  to  require  only  the  one  word  we  have  inserted. 

3  Vide  Introduction,  pp.  xxvi  et  seq. 


8 


PROLOGUE 


and  mouths  of  rivers:  further,  the  altitudes  of  the  poles,  by 
which  one  may  know  the  latitude  of  a  place  and  its  distance  from 
the  Equator.  I  will  also  describe  the  inhabitants  of  this  land  of 
Ethiopia  and  their  way  of  life  and  commerce ;  and  I  will  set  all 
this1  forth  diligently  for  the  service  of  your  Highness  as  best 
I  know  and  can  in  this  book,  which  will  be  called  Esmercddo  De 
Situ  Orbis2.  And  when  this  and  other  things  that  your  Highness 
commands  are  performed,  we  will  be  able  to  say  of  you  what 
Virgil  said3  of  Caesar  Augustus:  “You  rule  over  the  mighty  sea 
and  everybody  honours  your  greatness  and  Ultima  Thylle  [i.e. 
the  ends  of  the  earth]  will  serve  you.” 

1  The  text  is  slightly  corrupt  at  this  point,  but  not  sufficient  to  make  the 
meaning  obscure. 

*  Vide  Introduction,  p.  xvii. 

s  Georgies,  book  x,  li.  29-30 : 

“An  deus  immensi  venias  maris,  ac  tua  nautae 
numina  sola  colant,  tibi  serviat  ultima  Thule.” 

Pacheco  translates  it  rather  freely. 


FIRST 


BOOK 


The  beginning  of  the  first  book,  with  a  par¬ 
ticular  description  of  some  of  the  greater  circles  and 
of  the  property  of  the  earth. 

Chapter  i 

We  know  that  the  philosophers  and  wise  men  of 
old  gave  the  name  of  world  and  sky  and  other  names  to  that 
which  embraces  all  things  in  its  ambit1,  and  they  called  it  East 
or  Orient  where  the  sun  rises1  and  West  [or]1  Occident  where 
it  sets  and  the  intervening  space  South  and  North.  What  is  here 
briefly  set  forth  concerns  only  the  greater  circles.  On  this  subject, 
they  affirmed,  moreover,  that  the  earth  is  set  in  the  centre^  and 
is  surrounded  on  every  side  by  the  sea;  and  that  the  earth  is 
divided  into  two  parts  or  hemispheres  from  east  to  west  and  on 
the  east  into  five  zones4;  the  middle  zone,  which  is  called  the 
equinoctial  zone  or  the  zone  of  primary  movement,  is  distressed 
by  the  great  heat  of  the  sun,  but  is  nevertheless  well  peopled ;  it 
is  believed  that  the  colour  of  the  Ethiopians  is  so  black  because 

1  Literal  translation  of  passages  in  P.  Mela,  De  Situ  Orbis,  book  i,  chap.  3. 

*  Text  slightly  corrupt. 

5  Cf.  De  Situ  Orbis,  book  1,  chap.  4. 

*  The  division  of  the  earth’s  surface  into  zones,  corresponding  to  the  zones 
into  which  astronomers  divided  the  heavens,  goes  back  to  classical  times. 
The  number  of  such  zones  was  unanimously  set  at  five,  commonly  designated 
as  Septentrionalis,  Solstitialis,  Equinoctialis,  Brumalis  (or  Hyemalis)  and 
Australis,  but  there  was  considerable  difference  of  opinion  concerning  their 
habitability.  The  prevailing  view  down  to  the  middle  of  the  mediaeval  period 
was  that  the  two  polar  zones  and  the  equatorial  zone  were  uninhabitable,  the 
former  by  reason  of  cold,  and  the  latter  by  reason  of  heat.  Later  opinion  was 
inclined  to  reject  the  inhabitability  of  the  equatorial  zone,  because  of  growing 
evidence  that  there  were  people  living  near  the  equator.  Pacheco  of  course 
had  to  reject  the  traditional  belief  about  the  Torrid  Zone,  but  he  still  held  to 
the  view,  common  in  the  Middle  Ages,  that  an  Antipodean  race  inhabited  the 
southern  temperate  zone ;  although  part  of  this  southern  zone  was  discovered 
in  his  own  day,  he  nowhere  suggests  that  South  Africa  is  the  home  of  the 
Antipodes.  The  reason  for  this  may  be  that,  in  the  popular  imagination,  the 
home  of  these  people  was  in  an  “  austral  continent.”  On  the  general  question 
of  the  Antipodes  and  “Terra  Australis”  vide  A.  Rainaud,  Le  Continent 
Austral. 


10 


THE  ANTIPODES 


they  dwell  near  this  zone,  while  it  is  said  that  the  climate  of  the 
two  zones  nearest  the  poles  produces  peoples  of  extreme  white¬ 
ness  and  beauty,  even  more  than  the  other  two  or  temperate 
zones,  where  the  seasons  of  the  year  are  more  equable.  Of  these 
two  zones  it  is  said  that  the  Antipodes  inhabit  one  part  and  we 
the  other ;  they  dwell  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth,  where  the 
sun  rises  when  it  sets  for  us,  and  their  feet  are  over  against  our 
feet,  for  which  reason  they  are  called  Antipodes.  The  property 
of  the  globe  is  such  that  if  one  could  pierce  the  earth  and  throw 
a  stone  in  from  its  surface,  thinking  that  it  would  come  out  on 
the  other  side,  it  would  not  go  beyond  the  centre,  but  would 
remain  there,  for  that  is  the  lowest  part  (every  other  part  being 
higher)  and  it  is  impossible  and  contrary  to  nature  for  any  heavy 
thing  to  mount  or  move  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference. 
Thus  the  Antipodes  inhabit  the  one  part  and  we  the  other,  and 
in  the  part  in  which  we  dwell  no  one  is  content  with  all  the 
blessings  that  he  possesses,  and  in  the  end  eight  feet  of  earth 
suffice  us  and  there  the  vanity  of  all  our  cares  is  consumed  away. 


Chapter  ii 

Concerning  the  size  and  greatness  of  the  earth  and 
sea  and  which  of  them  is  the  larger. 

To  describe  the  situation  of  the  globe  and  the  greatness  of  the 
whole  earth  and  of  the  sea,  the  islands,  cities,  fortresses,  animals 
and  all  the  other  things  contained  in  it  is  a  long  and  difficult 
matter  admitting  no  elegance  of  style,  for  its  order  is  confused ; 
and  owing  to  the  earth’s  size  it  cannot  be  known  in  detail,  but 
our  admiration  for  so  excellent  a  thing  is  such  that  it  is  full 
worthy  to  be  described  and  discussed1.  Therefore  we  must 
consider  how  the  philosophers  who  treated  of  this  matter  said 
that  the  earth  is  completely  surrounded  by  the  sea,  bringing 
themselves  to  believe  that  the  whole  of  our  world,  the  seat  of 
life  and  the  glory  of  our  empires  is  made  into  an  island  by  the 

*  This  sentence  is  very  reminiscent  of  Mela’s  preamble  to  the  De  Situ 
Or  bis. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  LAND  AND  SEA 


II 


surrounding  waters,  and  their  conviction  of  this  was  carefully 
reasoned ;  but  some  of  the  modern  doctors  have  held  different, 
even  contrary  opinions.  For  they  sought  to  prove  by  the 
authority  of  Holy  Scripture  and  able  arguments  opposed  to 
those  of  the  ancients  that  the  earth  is  larger  than  the  sum  of  all 
the  waters,  which  are  placed  in  the  depths  and  concavity  of  the 
earth  and  are  surrounded  by  the  earth;  as  to  which  we  must 
note  the  words  of  Jacob,  Bishop  of  Valencia1,  an  excellent  scholar 
and  master  of  sacred  theology,  who  in  his  commentary  on  the 
Psalter  and  with  reference  to  the  Psalm  104  (which  begins 
“Bless  the  Lord,  O  my  soul”  and  has  a  verse  “Who  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  earth  ”)a  says  that  the  waters  are  all  set  within 
the  concavity  of  the  earth  and  that  the  earth  is  far  larger  than 
all  the  waters.  And  Pliny  in  the  second  book  of  his  Natural 
History ,  chapter  673,  says  that  all  the  waters  are  placed  in  the 
centre  of  the  earth,  and  this  is  a  conclusion  which  is  not  to  be 
denied.  That  the  truth  may  be  further  declared  we  may  note 
the  words  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis :  “  Let  the  waters  under 
the  heaven  be  gathered  together  unto  one  place4,”  the  words 
“unto'one  place”  showing  that  the  earth  is  not  surrounded  by 
the  sea,  for  if  it  were  so  these  words  would  not  have  been  used 
or  required;  rather  it  would  have  said  “Let  the  waters  be 
removed  from  the  earth,”  in  which  case  there  could  be  no  doubt 
that  the  earth  is  surrounded  by  the  waters  and  only  a  small  part 
of  it  uncovered  for  animals  to  dwell  on ;  but  since  it  says3  “  Let 
the  waters  be  gathered  together  unto  one  place”  it  was  made 
clear  that  the  waters  remained  in  the  concavity  of  the  earth,  since 
it  is  the  nature  of  water  to  flow  downwards,  and  following  their 
nature  the  waters  obeyed  the  behest  of  the  Creator;  so  that  we 
may  say  thatS  this  wra$  according  to  nature,  since  the  lowest  part 
of  the  earth  is  its  centre  and  on  this  the  waters  are  founded. 
Consequently  the  prophet  David  in  the  thirty-third  Psalm, 

‘  I.e.  Jacob  (or  Jaime)  Perez,  a  native  of  Ayora  in  Valencia.  He  was 
Bishop  of  Nicopolis  in  Asia  Minor  and  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  His  commentary  is  entitled  Expositions  in  psalmos  Davidi- 
cos,  and  went  through  several  editions  before  rsoo.  The  passage  referred  to 
is  found  on  p.  224  (1518  edition). 

*  Verse  5.  3  Chap.  65. 

4  Verse  9.  Text  slightly  comipt. 


12 


DISCOVERY  OF  BRAZIL 


beginning  “Rejoice  in  the  Lord,  O  ye  righteous”  said  “He 
gathereth  the  waters  of  the  sea  together  as  an  heap:  he  layeth 
up  the  depth  in  storehouses1,”  and  since  the  depth  of  the  earth 
is  its  centre  the  storehouse  of  the  waters  has  this  place  for  its 
foundation.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  earth  contains  water 
and  that  the  sea  does  not  surround  the  earth,  as  Homer  and 
other  authors  affirmed,  but  rather  that  the  earth  in  its  greatness 
surrounds  and  contains  all  the  waters  in  its  concavity  and  centre ; 
moreover,  experience,  which  is  the  mother  of  knowledge,  re¬ 
moves  all  doubt  and  misapprehension.  Therefore,  most  fortunate 
Prince,  we  have  known  and  seen  how  in  the  third  year  of  your 
reign  in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  1498,  in  which  your  Highness 
ordered  us  to  discover  the  Western  region,  a  very  large  landmass 
with  many  large  islands  adjacent,  extending  70°  North  of  the 
Equator,  and  located  beyond  the  greatness  of  the  Ocean,  has 
been  discovered  and  navigated;  this  distant  land  is  densely 
populated  and  extends  28^°  on  the  other  side  of  the  Equator 
towards  the  Antarctic  Pole.  Such  is  its  greatness  and  length  that 
on  either  side  its  end  has  not  been  seen  or  known,  so  that  it  is 
certain  that  it  goes  round  the  whole  globe3.  Thus  if  from  the 
shores  and  coast  of  Portugal  or  from  the  Promontory  of  Finis- 
Terra  or  from  any  other  point  of  Europe,  Africa  or  Asia  [sic] 
we  sail  across  the  Ocean  due  West  and  East,  through  36  degrees 
of  longitude  (though  some  points  are  slightly  more  distant) 
which  at  eighteen  leagues  to  the  degree*  are  648  leagues,  we  find 
this  land4,  along  which  the  ships  and  subjects  of  your  Highness 
now  coast  at  your  command  and  permission.  Following  this 
coast  28  degrees  from  the  Equator  towards  the  South  Pole  there 

*  Verse  7. 

1  Vide  Introduction,  pp.  xxi  et  seq. 

3  This  is  an  unusual  reckoning,  for  in  the  normal  Portuguese  Regimentos 
distances  were  based  on  a  degree  of  17$  leagues.  As  Portuguese  sailors 
reckoned  4  miles  (Roman  miles,  70  of  which  are  equivalent  to  64-4  English 
statute  miles),  648  leagues  are  equal  to  2592  Roman  miles  (or  2384-6  English 
miles).  Now  the  only  land  a  mariner  is  likely  to  find  this  distance  west  of 
Portugal  is  the  Bermudas,  some  500  miles  from  the  American  mainland.  In 
point  of  longitude  the  north-east  salient  of  Brazil  satisfies  Pacheco's  figure 
fairly  well ;  but  this  is  by  no  means  due  west  from  **  the  shores  and  coast  of 
Portugal."  However,  judging  from  the  context,  it  was  this  region  that 
Pacheco  had  in  mind. 

4  Corruption  in  the  text. 


SMALLNESS  OF  THE  OCEAN 


13 

is  found  much  excellent  Brazil1 *,  with  which  (and  with  many 
other  things)  the  ships  of  these  realms  return  heavily  laden. 
Many  years  before  this  land  was  known  or  discovered  Vincent 
in  the  first  book  of  his  “  Mirror  of  Histories,”  chapter  177s,  said 
that  “besides  the  three  parts  of  the  earth  there  is  a  fourth  part 
beyond  the  Ocean  to  the  South,  where  the  Antipodes  are  said 
to  dwell.”  Since  this  land  beyond  the  Ocean  is  so  large  and  on 
this  side  we  have  Europe,  Africa  and  Asia,  it  is  clear  that  the 
Ocean  is  placed  between  these  two  lands,  with  land  on  either 
side  of  it,  and  we  can  therefore  affirm  that  the  Ocean  does  not 
surround  the  earth  as  the  philosophers  declared,  but  rather  that 
the  earth  must  surround  the  sea,  since  it  lies  in  the  concavity 
of  the  earth  and  in  its  centre.  Therefore  I  conclude  that  the 
Ocean  is  only  a  very  large  lake  set  in  the  concavity  of  the  earth 
and  that  the  earth  and  sea  together  form  a  sphere.  From  the 
Ocean  many  arms  branch  out  and  enter  the  earth  and  are  known 
as  mediterranean,  and  this  we  believe  to  be  the  truth.  We  have 
still  to  declare  how  much  larger  the  earth  is  than  the  water,  for 
the  water  only  occupies  a  seventh  part  of  the  earth,  as  is  shown 
in  the  fourth  book  of  the  prophet  Esdras  and  the  sixth  chapter3 4 : 
“On  the  third  day  Thou  didst  command  the  waters  to  be 
gathered  together  into  a  seventh  part  of  the  earth  but  six  parts 
Thou  didst  dry  up.”  Thus  the  water  covers  a  seventh  part  of 
the  earth  and  six  parts  of  the  earth  are  uncovered  for  the  fife  of 
man  and  of  the  other  animals ;  and  this  is  a  reasonable  belief*. 

1  The  word  “brazil”  is  usually  supposed  to  signify  either  some  special 
kind  of  red  dye  wood  or  dye  wood  in  general :  however,  in  the  commercial 
literature  of  the  time  there  is  little  to  identify  it  as  wood  at  all.  “  Most  likely 
many  kinds  of  red  wood  suitable  for  dyeing  and  perhaps  other  vegetable 
products  available  for  that  purpose  were  included  under  the  name  *  brazil  ’  ” 
(W.  H.  Babcock,  Legendary  hies  of  the  Atlantic,  pp.  54-5). 

*  Vincent  of  Beauvais's  Speculum  Historiale,  chap.  77.  The  statement 
quoted  by  Pacheco  is  found  also  in  Isidore  ( Etymologies ,  book  xiv,  chap.  5, 
para.  17),  and  in  many  other  mediaeval  writers.  It  runs  as  follows Extra 
tres  autem  partes  orbis  quarta  cst  trans  ocean um  intcriorem  in  meridie  qui 
solis  ardore  incognita  nobis  est.  In  quibus  finibus  Antipodes  fabulose  in- 
habitae  produntur  inhabitare.” 

J  Verse  42. 

4  In  mediaeval  times  there  were  two  main  theories  concerning  the  distri¬ 
bution  of  land  and  water.  They  were  (a)  the  oceanic  theory,  that  the  “  oikou- 
mene  ”  is  surrounded  by  water,  and  (b)  the  continental  theory,  that  the  oceans 
of  the  earth  occupy  relatively  small  and  enclosed  basins.  Orthodoxy  de- 


H 


Chapter  iii 

How  Shem ,  Ham  and  Japheth ,  the  sons  of  Noah ,  each  in¬ 
habited  his  part  of  the  earth  after  the  Flood  and  how  these 
parts  were  called  Europe ,  Asia  and  Africa ,  and  concerning 
the  places  that  divide  them1. 

I  am  advised  to  tell  how,  after  the  universal  flood  and  total 
destruction,  from  which  by  divine  privilege  holy  Noah  and  his 
sons  escaped,  when  the  earth  was  uncovered  and  the  waters  had 
returned  to  their  place,  they  and  their  descendants  possessed 
the  whole  earth.  Thus  it  is  said  that  Shem,  his  eldest  son, 
inhabited  the  Eastern  region,  Ham  the  South  and  Japheth 
the  North.  As  there  were  three  sons  of  this  holy  father,  the 
ancient  writers  divided  the  earth  that  they  knew  into  three  parts, 
and  long  after  the  restoration  of  the  peoples  who  were  lost  in  the 
flood,  when  the  earth  was  again  fully  peopled  by  man,  Pom- 
ponius  Mela  and  other  ancient  cosmographers  as  well  as  others 
who  held  this  to  be  true  during  long  ages,  divided  the  earth  into 
three  principal  parts.  Of  the  fourth  part,  discovered  at  the 

manded  the  acceptance  of  the  former  view  (for  it  was  supported,  so  its 
protagonists  argued,  by  Holy  Scripture,  e.g.  Ps.  cxxxvi.  6),  but  there  were 
various  and  even  conflicting  notions  in  regard  to  the  size  of  the  ocean  or 
oceans  which  surrounded  the  known  world.  Abelard,  for  instance,  held  that 
all  the  earth’s  surface  except  the  “oikoumene”  was  covered  by  water. 
Martian  us  Capella  and  Macrobius,  who  had  a  great  following  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  held  that  there  were  three  areas  of  land  corresponding  to  our  "oikou¬ 
mene  ”  in  the  other  quarters  of  the  globe  and  that,  consequently,  the  ocean 
could  not  occupy  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  total  surface  area.  This  view, 
of  course,  was  in  line  with  that  of  the  Book  of  Esdras,  which,  although 
apocryphal,  enjoyed  much  popularity  in  the  Middle  Ages  ( vide  R.  Bacon, 
Opus  Majus,  Bridge’s  edition,  vol.  I,  p.  291).  Pacheco,  while  conceding,  with 
Bacon,  that  the  water  surface  of  the  earth  was  small  in  comparison  with  the 
land  surface,  discards  the  oceanic  theory  (which  Bacon  held)  in  favour  of  the 
continental  view  that  "the  earth  must  surround  the  sea.” 

1  The  writers  of  antiquity  and  the  Middle  Ages  were  practically  unanimous 
in  their  division  of  the  “oikoumene”  into  three  parts.  Orosius,  however, 
spoke  of  certain  writers  who  divided  the  earth  into  two  parts,  making  Africa 
a  part  of  Europe,  “because  of  its  small  size”,  and  making  Asia  as  large  as 
Africa  and  Europe  together  (vide  Ilistoria  adversos  paganos,  book  1,  chap.  2, 
para.  1).  It  was  upon  this  latter  belief  that  the  characteristic  symmetrical 
division  of  the  earth  in  the  "  T  in  O  ”  maps  was  based. 


DIVISION  OF  THE  CONTINENTS 


15 

bidding  of  your  Highness,  being  unknown  to  them,  they  said 
nothing.  These  three  parts  have  from  the  beginning  been  called 
Asia,  Europe  and  Africa.  The  name  Asia  is  said  to  have  been 
that  of  a  queen  who  reigned  in  this  region ;  the  name  Africa  is 
said  to  be  derived  from  Afeer,  the  son  of  Abraham,  who  brought 
a  great  army  and  subdued  the  inhabitants,  and  those  who  after¬ 
wards  possessed  it  were  called  Afcros  and  now  are  called 
Africans.  For  this  reason  it  is  believed  that  all  this  region  is 
known  as  Africa1 *.  Europe  took  its  name  from  that  of  a  queen, 
the  daughter  of  Agenor  of  Lybia ;  and  from  these  or  other  causes 
these  regions  are  universally  known  by  these  names.  These 
regions  are  divided  into  three  parts  by  the  straits  between  the 
western  Gaditanian*  coast  and  Cepta3  and  by  two  famous  rivers, 
viz.  the  Tanais4  and  Nile5;  the  division  begins  at  the  Riphaean 
mountains6,  which  are  near  the  Arctic  pole,  where  the  Tanais 
rises,  and  running  south  through  the  country  of  the  Scythians, 
flows  impetuously  into  the  sea  of  Tanais,  formerly  known  as 
Palude  Meotis7.  By  this  river  and  the  Mediterranean  from 
Cepta  to  the  Thracian  straits,  which  were  called  the  Hellespont, 
where  the  city  of  Constantinople  is  situated,  and  ending  in  the 
Lake  Meotis,  Europe  is  clearly  divided  from  Asia. 


1  This  is  the  usual  derivation.  Afer  (or  Epher  as  he  is  called  in  Genesis 

xxv.  4),  however,  was  a  grandson,  and  not  a  son  of  Abraham. 

*  I.e.  belonging  to,  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of,  Cadiz. 

*  I.e.  Ceuta.  4  I.e.  River  Don. 

5  Cf.  Mela,  De  Situ  Orbit,  book  1,  chap.  8,  and  Pliny,  Natural  History, 
book  m,  chap.  3.  Throughout  classical  and  mediseval  times  the  Nile  rather 
than  the  Red  Sea  was  regarded  as  the  frontier  between  Africa  and  Asia.  The 
dividing  line  between  Europe  and  Asia  was  not  universally  held  to  be  the 
Tanais :  some,  e.g.  Herodotus  (History,  book  iv,  chap.  45),  preferred  to  give 
this  distinction  to  the  Phasis,  i.e.  Rion  River,  which  enters  the  Black  Sea  near 
the  town  of  Poti. 

6  The  myth  of  the  Riphaean  Mountains  goes  back  to  antiquity.  It  was 
popularised  by  Aristotle,  who  believed  that  these  mountains  gave  rise  to  many 
of  the  large  European  and  Asiatic  rivers  (Meteor ologica,  chap.  zo).  As  no 
first-hand  evidence  was  forthcoming  until  a  relatively  late  date,  the  myth 
enjoyed  a  very  long  vogue.  Some  have  sought  to  identify  them  with  the 
Urals.  The  Don  however  rises  on  slightly  elevated  ground  south  of  Moscow. 
The  Riphsan  mountains  figure  frequently  on  mediaeval  maps:  e.g.  the 
Hereford  world-map  (Riphay  montes)  and  Psalter  map  (British  Museum 
Add.  MS.  28,681). 

7  The  Sea  of  Tanais  is  of  course  the  Sea  of  Azov,  which  was  formerly 
known  as  Paludemeon. 


Chapter  iv 

Concerning  the  birth  and  course  of  the  river  Nile1. 


The  river  Nile  rises  in  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon  beyond  the 
equator  towards  the  Antarctic  Pole.  These  mountains,  according 
to  the  description  of  Ptolemy*,  and  the  place  of  the  Nile’s  rising, 
350  south  of  the  equator,  must  be  the  rocky  mountains  of  Cabo 
de  Boa  Esperan^a.  And  flowing  from  its  springs  it  forthwith 
forms  two  great  lakes  and  thence  flows  through  the  land  of  the 
Ethiopians  over  against  the  Tanais^ ;  at  150  [north]  it  forms  two 
branches  which  afterwards  reunite.  The  land  between  these 
branches  forms  an  island  called  Meroe ;  it  is  very  large  and  well 
populated  and  is  far  better  and  richer  than  the  other  islands 
which  the  Nile  forms  with  the  overflow  of  its  waters,  as  Pliny 
declares  in  the  fifth  book  and  ninth  chapter4  of  his  Natural 
History.  Pliny  says*  further  that  the  Nile  flows  for  twenty  days’ 
journey  underground  and  then  reappears  as  a  new  river,  and  that 
the  inhabitants  of  that  region  believe  that  the  Nile  rises  there. 
Flowing  thus  it  waters  all  the  adjacent  lands  of  Egypt  and  gives 
sustenance  to  the  whole  of  that  province,  for  in  the  months  of 
June,  July,  August  and  September,  when  it  is  summer  in  Egypt 
and  there  is  never  any  rain,  the  Nile  overflows  its  banks  and 
covers  the  fields  of  Egypt ;  after  the  waters  have  receded  the 
earth  is  sown  and  cultivated  and  produces  its  fruits.  When  the 
Nile  rises  twelve  covados6  it  means  famine;  a  rise  of  thirteen 
means  a  fair  subsistence,  fifteen  gladness,  and  sixteen  great 
fertility,  according  to  Pliny?  in  the  chapter  mentioned.  It  is 
certainly  very  remarkable  that  the  Nile  should  overflow  in  the 

*  Vide  Introduction,  pp.  xx,  xxi,  and  Plate  (opposite). 

*  Vide  Geographia,  book  tv,  chap.  9,  paras.  23  and  24.  But  Ptolemy  places 
the  source  12J0  S. 

*  Cf.  Mela,  op.  cit.  book  1,  chap.  8  and  book  in,  chap.  85. 

4  Actually  book  v,  chap.  10.  5  Ibid. 

4  A  Portuguese  measure  containing  three-quarters  of  a  yard  or  a  Flemish  ell. 

7  Pliny's  description  runs  as  follows:  (the)  “most  desirable  height  (of 
increase)  is  16  cubits;  if  the  waters  do  not  attain  that  height,  the  overflow  is 
not  universal :  but  if  they  exceed  that  measure,  by  their  slowness  in  receding 
they  tend  to  retard  the  process  of  cultivation. . . .  When  the  water  rises  to  only 


HAKLUYT  SOC  IETY 


Serl«  1L  Vol.  LXXlX 


ARABIA! 


B  Y  Kf, 


MASimi- 


MiriBA 


PHAF 

-CCA 

R.BCJ 

IO 

^lORTH-EAST  AFRICA,  FROM  PTOLEMY'S  "  CEOGRAPHIA,"  ROME,  I»7 


SOURCE  OF  THE  NILE 


*7 

greatest  heat  of  summer;  the  cosmographers  who  diligently 
sought  out  the  reasons  of  this  gave  many  causes,  but  that  which 
best  satisfies  me  is  that,  in  the  promontory  where  the  Nile  rises, 
the  seasons  are  opposed  and  contrary  to  those  of  Egypt,  since 
the  centre  of  Egypt  is  30°  north  of  the  Equator  and  according  to 
the  description  of  Ptolemy  the  region  in  which  the  Nile  rises  is 
350  south  of  the  Equator;  in  which  region  in  the  months  men¬ 
tioned  we  know  that  it  is  the  depth  of  winter;  and  the  rains 
which  fall  in  this  region  in  a  few  days  reach  Egypt  owing  to  the 
rapid  flow  of  the  river,  although  it  is  then  summer  in  Egypt,  and 
it  seems  that  this  is  the  reason  for  the  overflow  of  the  Nile. 


Chapter  v 

Concerning  the  four  mouths  of  the  Nile 
and  where  it  enters  the  sea. 

Concerning  the  floods  of  the  river  Nile  of  which  we  spoke  in 
the  preceding  chapter  we  have  learnt  that  a  large  arm  flows 
through  Lower  Ethiopia  towards  the  west,  which  the  Ethiopians, 
according  to  its  course  from  distant  lands,  say  is  the  Rio  de 
Managua1 ;  for  of  all  the  rivers  of  this  land  of  Ethiopia  which  wc 
have  studied  daily  during  many  years  we  know  certainly  that 
this  is  the  largest,  as  we  shall  set  forth  at  greater  length  in  the 
chapter  dealing  with  the  Rio  de  Managua3.  The  other  arm, 
flowing  north,  we  know  enters  the  sea  of  Egypt*  near  the  archi- 

12  cubits,  it  experiences  the  horrors  of  famine:  when  it  attains  13,  hunger  is 
still  the  result:  a  rise  of  14  cubits  is  productive  of  gladness:  a  rise  of  15  sets 
all  anxieties  at  rest:  while  an  increase  of  16  is  productive  of  unbounded  trans¬ 
ports  of  joy. . .  ”  (book  v,  chap.  10). 

1  I.e.  the  Senegal  River:  cf.  Leo  Africanus,  History  and  Description  of 
Africa  (Hakluyt  Society),  vol.  I,  pp.  124-5. 

1  Vide  note  on  book  I,  chap.  27. 

J  It  was  not  until  the  time  of  Solinus  ( Collectanea  Rerum  Memorabilium, 
chap.  24,  para.  14)  that  the  word  “Mediterranean”  came  to  be  employed  for 
the  inland  sea  of  that  name,  and  then  only  as  a  convenient  designation  and  not 
as  a  strictly  geographical  name.  Pliny  and  Ptolemy  both  called  it  "Mare 
Internum,”  Mela  “  Mare  Nostrum.”  In  order  to  give  its  various  parts  exact 
definition,  it  was  customary  to  apply  the  name  of  the  adjacent  country  to 
them;  hence  “sea  of  Egypt.”  The  archipelago  referred  to  is  of  course  the 
iEgean. 


HK 


2 


i8 


BOUNDARIES  OF  ASIA  AND  AFRICA 


pclago  by  four  mouths ;  the  chief  and  largest  of  these  was  from 
very  ancient  times  called  Canopus  after  the  pilot  of  Menelaus 
of  that  name  who  died  there ;  it  is  now  known  as  Raxete1 *,  and 
by  this  mouth  many  large  boats  and  sailing  vessels  go  up  to  the 
great  city  of  Cairo  and  proceed  thence  much  farther  up  the  river. 
From  this  place  to  its  source,  the  Nile  divides  Asia  from  Africa, 
and  from  die  banks  of  the  Nile  further  on  all  that  part  which 
extends  thence  to  the  East  as  far  as  the  sea3  where  the  Ethiopians 
dwell  under  Egypt  and  beyond  there  towards  India,  past  the 
entrance  and  mouth  of  the  river  Ganges  and  the  land  of  Chis3, 
passing,  further  on,  the  Hyperborean  Mountains4 5  and  the  great 
province  and  region  of  Catay,  which  was  formerly  called  Cithia, 
until  it  comes  to  an  end  in  the  sea  which  on  the  north  washes 
the  coast  of  Norway,  once  named  Dacia*, — all  this  part  is  called 
Asia.  The  other  part,  which  turns  from  the  Nile  w  estward  across 
the  land  and  also  runs  along  the  western  Gaditanian  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  comes  out  by  the  straits  of  Cepta,  enclosing 
this  land  of  the  Ethiopias  of  Guinea  until  it  ends  in  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope, — all  this  part  is  counted  as  Africa.  The  same 
Mediterranean  is  that  which  divides  Africa  from  Europe,  and  we 
call  the  north  side  Europe  and  the  south  side  Africa.  Ancient 

1  Canopus  (or  Canobus)  was  the  name  of  the  town  at  the  mouth  of  the 
chief  distributary  of  the  Nile.  In  ascribing  the  origin  of  the  name  to  Mene- 
laus's  pilot,  Pacheco  follows  the  Greek  tradition,  but  it  is  more  probable  that 
it  owed  its  appellation  to  the  god  Canobus,  who  was  worshipped  there  with 
peculiar  pomp.  With  the  rise  of  Alexandria,  Canopus  began  to  decline :  traces 
of  its  ruins  are  found  about  three  miles  from  Aboukir.  Rosetta  (i.e.  Raxete)  is 
the  modem  successor  of  that  town. 

*  I.e.  Indian  Ocean. 

5  I.e.  China. 

4  These  mountains,  which,  according  to  classical  geography,  marked  the 
northernmost  limit  of  the  “  oikoumcne,”  were  situated  north  of  the  Riphaean 
Mountains  and  were  the  home  of  a  legendary  race  of  that  name.  “Here,” 
Pliny  tells  us,  "we  find  light  for  six  months  together,  given  by  the  sun  in  one 
continuous  day”  (Natural  History,  book  iv,  chap.  26). 

5  In  the  last  quarter  of  the  fourteenth  century  Norway  was  united  to  the 
crown  of  Denmark.  Bishop  Jacob  Perez,  whom  Pacheco  cites  in  book  1, 
chap.  2,  speaks  of  Norway  thus:  “cujus  magna  pars  est  sub  domino  regis 
dacie.”  Cf.  ^neas  Silvius’s  Opera  Geographica  et  Historica,  "Danian  sive 
Dacium  dicere  volumus  consuctudini  servientes  Germania:  portio  est” 
(1551  edition,  p.  425).  Jutland  and  the  later  kingdom  of  Denmark  were 
generally  called  “Dacia”  on  maps  and  in  learned  works  from  the  time  of 
Pliny  to  the  fifteenth  century. 


PROVINCES  OF  AFRICA 


19 

writers  divided  Africa  into  five  parts1;  the  first  of  these  was 
called  Libya,  because  the  coast  land  from  the  Nile  to  the  Cabo 
d’Antrefulcos3,  where  the  town  of  Melilla  is  situated,  is  called 
the  Libyan  Sea,  the  province  deriving  its  name  from  this  sea. 
The  second  part  was  called  Mauretania,  which  extends  from 
Melilla,  where  Libya  ends,  to  the  ancient  city  of  Tingy,  which 
we  now  call  Tanger.  This  region  is  known  as  Mauretania  and 
its  inhabitants  as  Maurs:  (owing  to  the  alteration  of  a  letter, 
however,  we  now  universally  call  them  Moors).  The  third  part 
was  called  Tingitania,  the  coast  as  far  as  the  city  of  £afy?  taking 
the  name  of  the  ancient  city  of  Tingi.  The  fourth  part  is  Atlantica, 
and  derives  its  name  from  the  fabled  Mount  Atlas4  and  the 
rocky  coast  as  far  as  the  beginning  of  Ethiopia?,  and  the  sea 
along  this  coast  took  the  name  of  Atlantic.  The  fifth  part  is 
Lower  or  Great  Ethiopia,  of  which  only  your  Highness  possesses 
the  trade.  Into  these  five  parts  the  whole  of  Africa  is  divided. 
Of  Asia  and  what  pertains  to  it  and  of  how  some  authors  aver 
that  it  is  larger  than  Europe  and  Africa  together  we  will  speak 
in  due  course.  I  conclude  then  that  the  Mediterranean  and 
these  two  rivers,  the  Tanais  and  the  Nile,  divide  these  three 
regions,  and  all  the  ancient  cosmographers  asserted  this;  but 
of  the  fourth  region  beyond  the  Ocean,  which  your  Highness 

There  was  not  the  unanimity  among  ancient  and  medixval  writers  con¬ 
cerning  the  division  of  Africa  that  Pacheco  seems  to  think.  Mela  certainly 
divided  the  continent  into  five  provinces — if  we  include  Ethiopia  (which  he 
dealt  with  separately) — but  his  territorial  divisions  do  not  coincide  in  each 
case  with  those  of  Pacheco’s  list.  They  were :  Cyrene,  Lesser  Africa  (embracing 
part  of  Pacheco’s  Libya),  Numidia  and  Mauretania.  Pliny  favoured  a  seven¬ 
fold  division  (eight  with  Ethiopia,  which  was  again  treated  independently), 
as  follows:  Mauretania,  Tingitania,  Numidia,  Africa,  the  Syrtes,  Cyrenaica 
and  Libya.  Pierre  d’Ailly  in  his  Tractatus  de  Imagine  Mundi — a  typical  late 
mediseval  cosmography—also  favoured  an  eightfold  division :  Africa  (pro¬ 
vince),  Cyrenaica,  Tripolitans,  Bizacium,  Carthaginensis,  Numidia,  Maure¬ 
tania  and  Ethiopia,  but  it  was  not  customary  to  find  the  last-named  province 
listed  under  Africa.  In  the  minds  of  most  writers  Ethiopia  did  not  merely 
denote  the  region  beyond  Upper  Egypt  and  south  of  the  Sahara,  but  the 
entire  southern  part  of  the  known  world,  just  as  India  sometimes  was  applied 
to  the  entire  Far  East.  Egypt,  it  will  be  noticed,  finds  no  place  in  any  of  these 
divisions.  It  was  regarded  as  “  the  country  which  lies  next  to  Africa  ”  (Pliny, 
op.  at.  book  v,  chap.  9),  since  it  was  commonly  held  that  the  Nile  formed 
the  boundary  between  Africa  and  Asia. 

*  I.e.  Cap  des  Trois  Fourches.  5  Vide  note  on  book  1,  chap.  18. 

4  Vide  note  on  book  I,  chap.  21. 

5  I.e.  Senegal  River,  vide  book  1,  chap.  27. 


20 


EXCELLENCE  OF  EUROPE 


ordered  to  be  discovered,  they  said  nothing,  since  it  was  un¬ 
known  to  them1.  For  the  better  understanding  of  our  work  we 
have  set  here  a  painted  map  of  the  world*,  with  the  shape  and 
description  of  these  lands,  including  Europe  (although  we  are 
not  writing  about  it)  since  it  is  one  of  the  four  parts  of  the  world, 
albeit  the  ancient  writers  asserted  that  there  were  but  three, 
Europe,  Asia  and  Africa,  of  which  we  have  spoken  above.  Pliny 
in  the  first  chapter  of  the  third  book  of  his  Natural  History  says 
that  Europe,  being  more  excellent  than  all  the  other  parts  of  the 
world3,  produces  conquering  races  and  that  its  position  and 
foundation  are  more  stable  than  the  rest.  Owing  to  its  excellence 
some  writers  considered  it  to  be  not  a  third  but  a  half4  of  the 
whole  earth;  nor  may  we  doubt  that  in  cities,  towns,  walled 
fortresses  and  other  stately  and  beautiful  buildings  Europe 
excels  Asia  and  Africa,  as  also  in  her  larger  and  better  fleets, 
which  are  better  armed  and  equipped  than  those  of  any  other 
region;  nor  can  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  and  Africa  deny  that 
Europe  possesses  great  abundance  of  arms  and  skill  in  them  and 
much  artillery,  besides  the  most  excellent  scholars  of  all  the 
world  in  every  science,  and  that  in  many  other  respects  it  excels 
all  the  rest  of  the  world.  Since  its  excellence  is  such  that  it  may 
not  be  briefly  described,  I  have  thought  it  better  to  be  silent  than 
to  write  little  on  this  subject. 

1  This  is  a  verbal  repetition  of  the  statement  in  chap.  3  (vide  p.  15). 

*  Vide  Introduction,  p.  xxx. 

5  The  text  is  corrupt  at  this  point  and  it  is  not  easy  to  say  with  certainty 
what  Pacheco  wrote,  seeing  that  this  passage,  contrary  to  the  tenor  of  Pacheco’s 
words,  finds  no  complete  parallel  in  Pliny. 

4  Cf.  Pliny,  op.  at.  book  m,  chap.  5.  This  view  originated  with  Herodotus, 
book  iv,  chap.  42,  but  it  was  strenuously  opposed  by  Polybius  and  others 
even  before  the  time  of  Pliny. 


21 


Chapter  vi 

Concerning  the  advantage  of  knowing  how  to  count 
the  world's  degrees  of  longitude  and  latitude. 

Since  we  have  promised  in  this  work  of  ours  to  deal  with 
navigation  and  the  things  of  the  sea,  it  is  reasonable  that  we 
should  fulfil  our  promise ;  and  because  the  subject  of  astronomy 
is  so  well  established  as  to  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  matter 
in  hand,  we  have  thought  it  well  to  set  down  here  the  degrees 
by  which  some  places  known  to  us  are  distant  from  the  Equator 
in  the  direction  of  the  North  or  of  the  South  Pole.  And  since 
it  is  necessary  to  explain  the  manner  of  counting  the  globe’s 
degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude  to  the  common  unlettered 
people  and  especially  to  the  mariners  who  sail  across  the  surface 
of  the  seas  of  the  world  (they  will  derive  great  benefit  if  they 
will  learn  this,  seeing  that  they  sail  afar  to  many  countries  and 
lands),  we  have  set  here  a  table  of  places,  cities,  lands  and  islands 
and  their  degrees  of  distance  from  the  Equator  towards  the 
Poles,  and  later  on  we  will  say  how  the  longitude  and  latitude 
of  the  globe  must  be  taken. 


Chapter  vii 

Table  of  the  latitudes  of  the  following  places 
located  north  of  the  equator. 


degrees  minutes 


Iherusalem 

33 

00 

Egipto 

29 

5° 

Babilonia 

33 

30 

Meca 

21 

40 

Damasco 

33 

00 

An  cron1 

33 

00 

Fugua  do  Egipto* 

29 

00 

degrees 

minutes 

Damiata 

3* 

00 

Anburi3 

20 

00 

Alcansatina4 

45 

00 

Rodcs 

36 

00 

Sardenha 

38 

00 

Cezilia5 

37 

00 

Roma 

42 

00 

All  four  names  are  found  in 
Zacuto’s  Almanack  perpeluum 
(1525) 


‘  Corruption  for  Acre? 

*  Head  of  Nile  Delta? 

3  Corruption  for  Anbur  near  Barcelona? 

4  Corruption? 

5  Sicily. 


22 


LATITUDES 


degrees  minutes  degrees  minutes 


Alixandria 

3i 

00 

Suecia'3 

62 

00 

Genova 

42 

30 

Norvegia 

54 

00 

Napoles 

40 

40 

Buda  in  Hungary 

47 

00 

Constantinopla 

43 

00 

Vilhana1* 

39 

16 

Captor1 

3* 

20 

Mdrida 

39 

08 

Paris 

48 

00 

Niebla 

37 

44 

Lisboa 

39 

00 

Narbona 

4® 

43 

Santarem 

40 

00 

Hyta'J 

40 

49 

Covilhan 

41 

00 

Cadafalso1* 

40 

19 

Medelim  in  Castille’ 

38 

5° 

Cd ceres 

39 

44 

Tanger 

35 

15 

Trosilho17 

39 

27 

Sevilha 

37 

IS 

Pisa 

42 

30 

Salamanca 

4* 

19 

Veneza 

45 

00 

Cordova 

37 

44 

Arzila 

36 

00 

Toledo 

39 

54 

Perepinha1* 

42 

30 

Legion3 

43 

08 

Panplona 

43 

30 

Camora 

4* 

43 

Logronho 

42 

20 

Touro 

41 

44 

Agueda'9 

41 

08 

A  villa 

40 

44 

Lorca’8 

38 

II 

Valhadolid 

41 

51 

Murcia 

38 

38 

Medina  del  Campo 

41 

22 

Tortosa 

4* 

21 

Benavente 

39 

II 

Barcelona 

42 

19 

Seguovea 

40 

57 

Granada 

37 

39 

Burguos 

4 2 

18 

Verona 

42 

00 

Santiaguo4 

43 

07 

Cuencua 

40 

30 

Valenqi3 

39 

52 

Soria 

4i 

38 

Albuquerque6 

38 

37 

Almaria" 

37 

30 

Tolosa7 

43 

00 

Atenca’* 

41 

08 

Viana  Provincie* 

44 

00 

Vitoria 

42 

46 

Brujas9 

52 

00 

Sena’3 

42 

3® 

Collonha  Agripina10 

Si 

00 

Feez 

33 

00 

Argentina" 

47 

00 

Cepta*4 

35 

20 

Constancia 

46 

00 

Aljazira’5 

37 

22 

Augusta  Vindelicor- 

Talaveira’6 

39 

58 

Na 

46 

00 

fieija’7 

39 

33 

1  In  southeast  Spain.  The  portolan  charts  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  mark  Captor  midway  between  Malaga  and  Almeria. 

*  Near  Badajoz.  1  Leon  in  Old  Castille.  Its  Roman  name  was  Legio. 

*  I.e.  Santiago  de  Compostela.  5  I.e.  Valencia  in  Cd  ceres. 

6  A  town  situated  to  the  southeast  of  Valencia  in  the  province  of  Badajoz. 

7  Tolosa  near  S.  Sebastian?  Toulouse? 

1  Vienne  in  Dauphind?  9  Bruges. 

**  Roman  name  of  Cologne.  ”  Strasburg. 

n  Roman  name  of  Augsburg.  13  Sweden. 

u  Villena  in  Valencia?  ,J  Hita  in  Old  Castille. 

1  Cadalso  in  the  province  of  Cdceres. 

17  Trujillo  to  cast  of  Cd  ceres.  11  Perpignan. 

19  Near  Aveiro  in  Portugal.  19  Near  Murcia. 

il  Almeria.  “  Atienza  in  New  Castille. 

13  Siena  in  Tuscany.  M  Ceuta. 

*5  Algcciras.  u  Talavera  in  New  Castille. 

*7  Near  Cordoba. 


LATITUDES 

23 

degrees  minutes 

degrees  minutes 

Palen^ia 

4* 

00 

Coulam  in  India’3 

08 

00 

Valenca* 

39 

36 

Xaul  in  India’4 

22 

00 

Daroca’ 

41 

20 

Melinde  in  Ethiopia 

03 

00 

Saraguofa 

4i 

30 

Ilhas  do  Fayal  e  do 

Taragona 

4* 

53 

Pico 

38 

30 

Narbona 

42 

00 

Hazamor 

33 

40 

Cartagena 

36 

00 

Cabo  de  Guer 

31 

25 

Rcquena3 

40 

16 

Cabo  de  Nam 

3® 

20 

Alcantara 

40 

30 

Ilha  de  Forte  Ven¬ 

Madrid 

40 

24 

tura  in  the  Canaries 

28 

00 

Jaem 

37 

56 

Cabo  de  Bojador 

27 

zo 

Guadalajara 

40 

45 

Angra  dos  Ruivos 

25 

00 

Alcaic 

40 

3° 

Angra  dos  Cavallos 

24 

00 

Tordclaguna4 

39 

58 

Rio  do  Ouro 

23 

35 

Colonia5 

S1 

00 

Cabo  das  Barbas 

21 

30 

Buarcos  in  Portugal6 

40 

35 

Cabo  Branco 

20 

20 

O  Porto  in  Portugal 

41 

40 

Rio  de  (panagui 

15 

20 

Caminha 

42 

30 

Cabo  Verde  and  An¬ 

Ilha  Terceira  of  the 

gra  dc  Bezeguiche 

14 

20 

Azores 

39 

00 

Cabo  dos  Mastos 

*4 

20 

Cabo  de  Finis  terra 

43 

45 

Ilha  de  Sam  Thiago 

Sorlingua7 

dc  Cabo  Verde 

15 

20 

Hoexante* 

.  . 

.  # 

Rio  de  Guambea’5 

*3 

00 

Ho  de  Sines9 

38 

00 

Rio  Grande 

zz 

00 

Ilha  de  SSo  Miguel 

Cabo  da  Verga 

09 

20 

of  the  Azores 

38 

00 

Ilhas  dos  Idolos 

09 

00 

Cabo  de  Sfio  Vincente 

37 

00 

Auguada  da  Serra 

Calez'® 

37 

00 

Lyoa 

08 

00 

Cabo  de  Espartel 

35 

30 

Cabo  de  Santa  Anna 

07 

20 

Ilha  da  Madeira 

33 

30 

Cabo  do  Monte 

06 

4° 

Cabo  de  Cantim 

33 

30 

Rio  dos  Cestos  de 

Trap  ana  in  Cezilia 

36 

30 

Costa  da  Malagueta 

05 

50 

Ilha  de  Xio" 

38 

00 

Cabo  das  Palmas 

04 

00 

Cabo  de  Santo  An¬ 

Castello  de  Sam 

gelo  in  Morea 

36 

00 

Jorze  da  Mina 

OS 

30 

Maguadaxo  in  Ethi¬ 

Rio  da  Volta 

06 

30 

opia 

oz 

30 

Rio  do  Laguo 

05 

IS 

Cochim  in  India 

09 

00 

Rio  Fcrmoso 

•  • 

Ilha  d’Anjadiva  in 

Rio  dos  Escravos 

•  • 

India" 

15 

00 

Cidade  do  Benin 

•  • 

Calecut  in  India 

11 

20 

Cabo  Fcrmoso 

•  • 

Cananor  in  India 

IZ 

00 

Ilha  de  FemS  do  Poo 

•  • 

1  Valencia,  capital  of  the  province  of  that  name. 

1  Near  Caiatayud.  1  Near  Valencia. 

4  Torre  laguna  in  New  Castille.  *  Cologne. 

6  Near  Coimbra. 

7  Sdlly  Isles  (vide  portolan  charts,  e.g.  Catalan  Atlas,  c.  1375). 

*  Ushant.  *  Cape  Sines  in  Southern  Portugal. 

,e  Cadiz.  “  Chios. 

**  Anjidiv  Is.,  about  50  miles  SSE  of  Goa.  ’*  Quilon  in  Travancore. 
14  Chaul,  south  of  Bombay.  *5  Gambia  River. 


LATITUDES 


24 


degrees  minutes 


Serra  Guerreira 

Ilha  de  Santo  An¬ 
tonio,  also  called 
Ilha  do  Principe 

03 

00 

03 

00 

Ilha  de  Sam  Thom6 

01 

00 

Ilha  de  Cori  Mori 

near  Persia1 

21 

00 

Ilha  da  Boa  Vista 

50 

degrees  minutes 

Ilha  do  Sal  near 
Ilha  da  Boa  Vista  16  30 

Ilhas  de  S.  Nicolao, 

Santa  Luzia,  Sam 
Vincente.  All  these 
four  islands  close 
together,  near  the 
Ilha  da  Boa  Vista  16  40 


These  are  the  latitudes  of  the  following  places  located  south 
of  the  equator : 

degrees  minutes  degrees  minutes 


Rio  do  Guabam  on 

Cabo  das  Agulhas 

35 

00 

the  equator 

00 

00 

Auguada  de  Sam 

Cabo  dc  Lopo  Gon- 

Bras 

34 

30 

£alvez 

00 

10 

Rio  do  Infante 

33 

15 

Rio  do  Padram 

07 

00 

Ilhco  da  Cruz 

Cabo  ...y  fuso* 

10 

45 

Ilhcos  dc  Sam  Chris- 

Angra  das  Aldeas 

16 

20 

tovS 

32 

40 

Mangua  das  Areas 

17 

00 

Ponta  de  Santa  Lu2ia 

3° 

00 

Cabo  Negro 

18 

00 

Ponta  de  Santa 

Angra  da  Balea 

21 

00 

Martha 

26 

00 

Cabo  do  Padram 

23 

00 

Cabo  das  Correntes 

24 

00 

Angra  da  Comceip- 

Cabo  de  Sam  Se- 

Cam 

25 

30 

bastiam 

20 

30 

Angra  de  Sam  Thom< 

*7 

40 

Cofalla  in  Ethiopia 

20 

OO 

Angra  das  Voltas 

29 

00 

Ilhas  Primeiras 

16 

00 

Monos  da  Pedra 

3i 

00 

Monsombique 

*5 

00 

Angra  de  Santa  Elena 

32 

30 

Cabo  Delgado 

10 

00 

Cabo  de  Boa  Esper- 

Quiloa 

09 

OO 

an^a 

34 

30 

Mombasa 

04 

30 

These  are  the  latitudes  of  the  following  places  located  south 
of  the  equator  in  the  land  of  Brazil : 


degrees  minutes 

degrees 

minutes 

Angra  de  Sam  Roque 

03 

30 

Porto  Scguro 

18 

00 

Santa  Maria  d’Ara- 

Rio  dc  Santa  Luzia 

19 

20 

bida 

05 

OO 

Ilha  de  Santa  Bar¬ 

Cabo  de  Santo  Ago- 

bara 

20 

20 

stinho 

08 

IS 

Rio  dos  Hare  fees 

24 

40 

Rio  de  Sam  Fran¬ 

Ilha  de  Santa  Crara 

24 

40 

cisco 

10 

00 

Cabo  Frio 

25 

OO 

Auguada  de  Sam 

Ilha  de...FemahuJ 

27 

OO 

Miguel 

10 

OO 

Ilha  de  Santo  Amaro 

28 

30 

Porto  Real 

14 

OO 

Ilha  d'Acemsam4 

21 

OO 

Angra  de  Todolos 

Angra  Fermosa 

IS 

OO 

Santos 

15 

40 

Ilha  dc  Sam  Louren90 

04 

OO 

1  Kuria  Muria  Isles  off  the  south  coast  of  Arabia. 

1  Ponta  das  Camboas?  {vide  book  ill,  chap.  2).  Text  corrupt. 
J  Text  corrupt.  4  Ascension  Isle. 


25 


Chapter  viii 

Concerning  the  Equator  and  the  understanding  of  the 
earth's  degrees  of  longitude  and  latitude. 

We  hold  it  to  be  a  true  and  certain  fact  of  astronomy  that  the 
Equator  divides  into  two  equal  parts  the  circumference  of  the 
world,  running  from  east  to  west  and  back  to  the  east ;  being  set 
at  the  centre  of  the  globe  it  is  distant  ninety  degrees  from  the 
Arctic  Pole,  which  the  mariners  call  the  North,  and  likewise 
ninety  degrees  from  the  Antarctic  Pole,  which  they  call  the 
South.  A  man  standing  with  the  Equator  as  his  zenith  will  see 
the  two  poles  level  on  the  horizon1.  Since  these  terms  “  zenith  ” 
and  “horizon”  are  only  understood  by  the  learned,  we  have 
thought  it  well  to  explain  them  here  in  order  to  instruct  those 
who  have  no  knowledge  of  this  matter;  they  must  know  then 
that  the  zenith  is  nothing  but  an  imaginary  point  in  the  sky 
immediately  above  our  head,  and  if  a  thousand  men  are  standing 
together,  or  separate,  or  more  or  less  than  a  thousand,  each  will 
have  his  own  zenith.  The  horizon  is  where  it  seems  to  us  that 
the  sky  joins  the  sea  or  the  earth  and  is  called  the  “  determinator  ”* 
of  our  vision  since  we  cannot  see  beyond.  Thus  he  who  reaches 
a  point  where  he  has  the  Equator  for  zenith  will  sec  the  two 

*  Pacheco  presumably  had  in  mind  the  polar  circles  of  the  celestial  sphere 
and  not  the  terrestrial  sphere.  Our  polar  (or  arctic  and  antarctic)  cinde  is 
fixed :  his  varied  according  to  the  view-point  of  the  observer.  His  was  the 
arctic  circle  of  the  Greeks,  which  was  drawn  on  the  celestial  sphere  parallel 
to  the  equator  and  tangential  to  the  observer’s  horizon,  and  it  therefore 
separated  the  circumpolar  stars  that  are  always  above  the  horizon  from  the 
sure  that  rise  and  set  with  respect  to  his  (the  observer’s)  horizon.  Since  the 
altitude  of  the  celestial  pole  is  always  the  same  as  the  latitude  of  the  observer, 
the  arctic  circles  would  become  zero  for  him  at  the  equator:  and,  again,  he 
would  have  no  arctic  circles  if  stationed  south  of  the  equator,  nor  would  he 
have  any  antarctic  circles  if  stationed  north  of  the  equator.  Conversely,  if 
the  observer  were  at  either  of  the  poles  the  circle  of  the  equator  would  become 
zero  for  him,  that  is,  the  equator  would  be  his  horizon — as  Pacheco  says  lower 
down.  ( Vide  Strabo,  Geography,  book  II,  chap,  z,  para,  z,  note,  Loeb 
edition.) 

*  The  word  used  by  Pacheco — determinador — is  the  etymological  definition 
of  the  Greek  word  horixonte,  which  the  Romans  translated  by  circulus  finitor 
and  circulus  finiens  ( vide  E.  Dias,  op.  cit.  p.  39). 


i6 


LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE 


poles  equally  touching  the  horizon,  as  I  have  said,  and  if  he 
travels  until  he  has  the  Arctic  or  Antarctic  Pole  as  zenith  he  will 
see  the  Equator  as  the  horizon.  Further,  you  must  know  that 
the  degrees  of  latitude  of  the  surface  and  circumference  of  the 
world  are  counted  from  the  Equator  towards  the  poles,  and  the 
number  of  degrees  that  either  pole  is  raised  above  the  horizon 
(which  is  also  called  the  circle  of  the  hemisphere)  gives  the 
number  of  degrees  that  a  place,  or  man  standing  at  that  place, 
is  distant  from  the  Equator.  The  degrees  of  longitude  are  counted 
from  orient  to  Occident1 *,  which  the  mariners  call  east  and  west, 
and  this  is  difficult  to  ascertain  because  they  have  no  firm  and 
fixed  point  [of  reference]  as  are  the  poles3  for  the  latitudes,  and 
of  this  I  will  say  no  more*. 


1  As  a  general  rule,  longitude  used  to  be  reckoned  from  the  prime  meridian 
which  Ptolemy  had  used,  namely  that  of  the  Fortunate  Isles  (i.e.  Canaries) 
which  were  situated  in  the  Western  Ocean  at  what  was  regarded  as  the 
westernmost  limit  of  the  habitable  earth.  Accordingly  the  longitudes  of 
places  in  the  Old  World  came  to  be  counted  from  west  to  east.  Pacheco  must 
have  known  that  this  was  the  practice  of  his  own  day,  and  therefore  we  can 
only  suppose  that  he  is  guilty  of  a  verbal  slip  in  writing  "from  orient  to 
Occident "  (but  cf.  R.  Bacon,  Opus  Majtis — Mathematica,  chap.  16,  p.  208, 
Burke’s  edition). 

1  Text  slightly  corrupt. 

3  Vide  Introduction,  p.  xx. 


27 


Chapter  ix 

Concerning  the  course  of  the  sun  towards  the  tropics. 

Twice  in  the  year  the  sun  crosses  the  Equator,  giving  two 
equinoxes,  one  on  the  eleventh  of  March1,  when  the  sun  is  at  the 
first  point  of  Aries;  the  other  on  the  fourteenth  of  September, 
when  the  sun  is  at  the  first  point  of  Libra ;  at  which  times  the 
day  is  equal  to  the  night  throughout  the  world.  Moving  from 
Aries  the  sun  in  its  course  gives  us  a  high  solstice,  and  proceeding 
till  the  twelfth  day  of  June1  enters  the  tropic  and  sign  of  Cancer, 
beyond  which  it  never  passes.  This  is  called  the  summer  solstice, 
and  the  sun's  greatest  declination  from  the  Equator  towards  this 
region  is  23 °  33'  [north]*.  The  sun  then  turns  again  and  retires 
from  Cancer  and  enters  the  sign  of  Libra  on  the  fourteenth  day 
of  September1  as  I  have  said;  proceeding,  it  gives  us  a  low 
solstice  until  it  reaches  the  tropic  and  sign  of  Capricorn  on  the 
twelfth  day  of  December1.  This  is  called  the  winter  solstice ;  its 
greatest  declination  is  23 0  30'*  [south]  and  this  is  its  farthest 
limit.  Thus  it  goes  working  and  illuminating  with  its  rays 
throughout  the  year,  passing  through  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
Zodiac,  entering  and  dwelling  in  one  each  month  and  leaving  it 
to  enter  another.  Because  the  altitudes  of  the  poles  calculated 
by  the  degrees  of  the  sun’s  declination  are  required  for  fixing  the 
latitude  and  distance  of  certain  places  north  and  south  of  the 
Equator  we  will  write  here  the  manner  of  doing  this,  since 
without  this  explanation  nothing  certain  can  be  done.  However 
he  who  wishes  to  understand  this  must  first  know  how  many 
degrees  and  minutes  the  sun  declines  daily  and  travels  from  the 

*  These  dates  are  anterior  to  the  reform  of  the  calendar  which  took  place 
in  1582  under  Pope  Gregory,  when  n  days  (5  to  14  October  inclusive)  were 
passed  over. 

*  Up  to  the  time  of  Pedro  Nunes  ( Tratado  da  carta  de  mortar)  the  most 
commonly  given  value  of  the  sun's  maximum  declination  was  23°  33' — the 
figure  adopted  by  Zarkali.  The  corresponding  value  given  by  Regiomontanus 
(Ephemerides)  was  23 0  30'.  Nunes  discussed  the  3  minutes,  and  finding  them 
unimportant  dropped  them.  Pacheco  compromised,  adopting  Zarkali’s  figure 
for  the  northern,  and  Regiomontanus’s  for  the  southern,  declination. 


28 


CALCULATION  OF  LATITUDE 


Equator  towards  either  of  the  tropics ;  and  when  this  is  known 
and  also  the  time  when  the  sun’s  declination  must  be  added  to 
the  degrees  of  its  altitude,  or  when  the  same  declination  of 
altitude  is  to  be  taken  away  or  when  there  is  no  declination,  then 
the  degrees  and  latitude  from  the  Equator  towards  either  of  the 
tropics  and  poles  will  be  known. 


Chapter  x 

How  the  degrees  of  the  sun's  altitude  are  to  be  added  to 
its  declination  or  the  declination  to  be  deducted  from  the 
altitude. 

The  altitude  of  the  sun  should  be  taken  exactly  at  noon  with  the 
astrolabe  or  quadrant.  He  who  takes  it  on  the  eleventh  of 
March,  and  on  the  fourteenth  of  September,  and  finds  it  to  be 
90°,  which  is  its  maximum  altitude,  may  know  for  certain  that 
he  is  on  the  Equator  and  has  it  for  his  zenith;  for  at  any  other 
time  except  these  two  equinoctial  days  of  March  nth  and 
September  14th,  the  sun  does  not  reach  an  altitude  of  90°  at 
the  Equator.  He  who  takes  the  altitude  on  these  two  days  and 
finds  it  to  be  fifty  or  sixty  or  eighty  degrees,  or  more  or  less, 
but  still  under  ninety,  will  not  have  the  Equator  for  zenith;  to 
ascertain  his  latitude  he  must  deduct  the  number  of  degrees  of 
altitude  from  90°  and  this  will  give  him  the  number  of  degrees 
of  latitude  from  the  Equator  towards  either  of  the  tropics. 

Item.  He  who  takes  the  altitude  of  the  sun  on  the  twelfth 
of  June  and  finds  it  to  be  ninety  degrees  may  know  for  certain 
that  he  is  under  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and  so  at  a  latitude  of 
23°  33'  fr°m  Equator.  If  he  finds  an  altitude  of  90°  on  the 
twelfth  of  December  he  will  be  under  the  tropic  of  Capricorn. 
On  these  days  one  or  other  of  the  tropics  will  be  his  zenith 
and  he  will  be  in  the  aforesaid  latitude,  namely,  230  33'  from 
the  Equator. 

Item.  The  astronomers  have  decided  that  the  distance  from 
the  Equator  towards  each  of  the  tropics  should  be  called  the 


CALCULATION  OF  LATITUDE 


29 

torrid  zone  and  the  “table”1  of  the  sun.  The  sun  pursues  its 
course  in  this  table  throughout  the  year;  while  it  rises  to  an 
altitude  of  90°  at  the  Equator  and  the  tropics,  as  I  have  said  in 
the  preceding  chapter,  it  also  ascends  during  the  course  of  the 
twelve  months  in  travelling  between  these  points  that  number 
of  degrees  in  the  said  torrid  zone.  A  man  may  be  at  such  a  place 
on  any  of  the  days  of  the  year,  and  when  the  sun  rises  to  an 
altitude  of  90°  it  will  be  the  zenith  of  his  table ;  when  he  finds 
the  altitude  to  be  90°,  let  him  look  at  the  table  of  the  sun’s 
declinations  for  the  declination  of  that  day.  Let  him  then  deduct 
this  number  from  the  90°  and  the  remainder  will  give  the  degrees 
of  latitude  that  he  is  distant  from  the  Equator  in  the  direction 
of  either  tropic. 

Item.  If  a  man  is  at  a  place  where  the  sun  is  between  him 
and  the  Equator,  whether  the  Equator  be  towards  the  Arctic  or 
towards  the  Antarctic  pole,  let  him  first  find  the  number  of 
degrees  of  the  sun’s  declination  on  that  day  and  subtract  them 
from  the  degrees  of  the  sun’s  altitude;  if  he  subtract  the  re¬ 
mainder  from  90°  he  will  have  the  number  of  degrees  of  latitude 
he  is  from  the  Equator  in  the  direction  of  either  tropic. 

Item.  If  a  man  is  situated  between  the  sun  and  the  Equator, 
towards  either  pole,  he  must  first  take  the  sun’s  declination  for 
the  day  from  the  table  of  declinations  and  add  its  degrees  to 
those  of  the  sun’s  altitude,  then  subtract  from  90°  and  the 
resulting  number  will  give  his  distance  in  degrees  of  latitude 
from  the  Equator  towards  either  tropic ;  but  if  the  sum  of  the 
degrees  of  altitude  and  the  degrees  of  declination  exceeds  90 °*, 
then  the  90°  must  be  subtracted  and  the  resulting  sum  will  give 
the  degrees  of  latitude. 

Item.  If  you  are  in  a  place  where  the  Equator  is  between  you 
and  the  sun,  whether  towards  one  pole  or  the  other,  first  find 
in  the  tables  of  declination  the  degrees  of  the  sun’s  declination 
for  that  day,  then  take  the  sun’s  altitude,  adding  its  degrees  to 
those  of  the  declination  and  then  subtract  90°.  The  result  will 

1  Cf.  Martin  Cortes,  The  Art  of  Navigation,  chap.  2  (translated  by  R.  Eden). 

*  A  moment’s  reflection  will  show  that  when  the  observer  is  between  the 
sun  and  the  equator  the  sum  of  the  sun’s  noon  altitude  and  declination  must 
always  be  more  than  90°,  so  that  Pacheco’s  equation  for  this  case  should 
read :  latitude  (north  or  south)  equals  declination  plus  altitude  minus  90°. 


3° 


CALCULATION  OF  TIDES 


give  the  degrees  of  latitude  that  you  are  distant  from  the  Equator 
towards  either  tropic. 

He  who  would  understand  this  work  of  ours  must  know  the 
months  in  which  the  sun  moves  from  the  Equator  to  the  tropic 
of  Cancer  and  similarly  to  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  as  I  have 
said  in  chapter  9 ;  for  if  he  knows  the  time  of  the  sun’s  course 
towards  either  region  and  its  declinations  and  the  differences  of 
the  shadows  it  makes  according  to  the  month  in  which  it  is  this 
side  or  that  side  of  the  Equator,  he  will  be  able  to  understand 
this  work. 


Chapter  xi1 

How  to  compute  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  sea  in  the  greater 
part  of  Spain  and  likeioise  in  other  regions  where  there 
are  tides. 

With  very  good  reason  we  have  based  one  part  of  our  work  on 
the  art  of  navigation,  as  we  have  pointed  out  at  the  end  of  the 
Prologue  to  this  book ;  and  since  we  must  make  use  of  it  in  all 
our  voyages  by  sea,  we  must  briefly  explain  the  calculation  of  the 
moon’s  course,  by  which  we  can  know  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the 
sea ;  for  those  who  know  this  calculation  for  the  tides  will  be 
able  easily  to  learn  them  and  will  know  why  the  mariners  say 
that  in  the  greater  part  of  this  country  of  Spain  they  flow  north¬ 
east  and  southwest.  When  these  are  known  they  will  be  able  to 
judge  by  them  if  the  tides  elsewhere  flow  northeast  and  south¬ 
west,  as  in  Spain,  or  wherein  they  differ.  Thus  we  shall  be  able 
to  know,  wherever  we  are,  either  inland  far  from  the  sea  or 
coming  from  the  deep  sea  in  search  of  land  to  enter  some  river, 
how  the  tide  stands,  judging  by  the  phases  of  the  moon  and 
considering  how  many  days  have  elapsed  from  the  time  of  the 
conjunction  and  new  moon  to  the  day  and  hour  for  which  we 
require  to  know  the  tide ;  with  this  knowledge  our  ships  will  be 
able  to  enter  safely  rivers  and  other  places  for  which  it  is 

*  Vide  Introduction,  pp.  xxvi  et  seq. 


CALCULATION  OF  TIDES 


3* 

necessary1  to  know  the  state  of  the  tide,  without  actually  seeing 
its  ebb  and  flow. 

Item.  We  must  first  note  that  the  astronomers  have  affirmed 
that  from  the  time  the  moon  is  new  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
sun,  which  the  common  people  call  “antrelunho,  ”  to  the  time 
when  the  conjunction  and  new  moon  recur,  there  is  an  interval 
of  29  days,  12  hours  and  33  minutes2;  and  in  every  24  hours 
(which  is  a  natural  day)  after  the  conjunction,  the  moon  draws 
away  from  the  sun  four-fifths  of  an  hour  and  continues  in  this 
course  during  14^  natural  days,  16  minutes  and  one  second?, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  it  is  opposite  the  sun  and  full.  It  then 
begins  to  hide  itself  gradually  and  to  conceal  from  our  sight  the 
light  it  receives  from  the  sun,  approaching  the  sun  each  natural 
day  after  the  time  of  its  opposition  and  full  moon  four-fifths  of 
an  hour  again,  until  there  is  a  fresh  conjunction  and  a  new 
moon;  and  this  is  the  monthly  movement  of  the  moon  as 
displayed  before  our  eyes. 

Item.  There  is  a  difference  between  the  astronomers  and  the 
mariners  concerning  the  course  of  the  moon,  for  the  astronomers 
say  that  during  each  natural  day  of  twenty-four  hours  from  the 
time  of  the  conjunction  and  new  moon  to  the  time  when  it  is 
full  and  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  the  moon  draws  away  from 
the  sun  four-fifths  of  an  hour  and  then  similarly  approaches  the 
sun  four-fifths  of  an  hour  daily  until  it  is  again  in  conjunction, 
as  we  have  already  explained  in  the  preceding  paragraph  in 
this  chapter;  but  the  mariners  affirm  that  the  moon  recedes  from 
and  approaches  the  sun  only  three-quarters  of  an  hour  in  each 
natural  day,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  quarter  point  on  the 
compass.  Accordingly  there  is  a  difference  between  them  of  a 
twentieth  of  an  hour ;  and  although  the  astronomers  may  be  right 
in  this  matter  and  the  mariners  wrong,  the  difference  of  three 
minutes  is  so  slight  that  it  makes  no  difference,  introducing 

*  The  text  is  corrupt  at  this  point. 

1  M.  Cortes  (op.  or.)  gives  29  days  12  hours  44  minutes,  which  is  the  more 
usual  figure,  and  correct  to  3  seconds. 

5  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  Pacheco  arrived  at  this  figure,  for  the  “  oppo¬ 
sition"  was  usually  regarded  as  occurring  exactly  half  way  through  the  lunar 
cycle.  The  general  reckoning  was  14  days  x8  hours  22  minutes  after  con¬ 
junction. 


32 


CALCULATION  OF  TIDES 


neither  difficulty  nor  palpable  error  into  the  calculation  of  the 
tides  of  which  we  hope  to  treat.  We  will  therefore  follow  the 
opinion  of  the  mariners,  since  the  tides  are  more  easily  calculated 
by  the  compass  than  in  any  other  way,  according  to  the  ancient 
practice  of  mariners. 


Chapter  xii 

How  it  is  necessary ,  in  order  to  learn  the  tidey 
to  know  how  to  read  the  compass. 

He  who  wishes  to  learn  to  calculate  the  tides  must  first  know  all 
the  points  of  the  compass  with  its  quarter  points  and  half  points, 
since  this  is  the  essential  foundation  of  this  matter  and  without 
it  there  can  be  no  certainty.  The  mariners  and  pilots  who 
practised  this  [art]  of  old  first  learned  the  points  of  the  compass, 
quarter  points  and  half  points,  and  deduced  therefrom  the 
rhythm  of  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  sea  in  the  province  of  Spain 
and  in  other  regions  according  to  the  difference  of  the  tides, 
beginning  from  the  Rio  de  Barbate  in  Andaluzia  to  Galiza1  and 
the  greater  part  of  Bizcaya,  calculating  six  hours  ebb  and  six 
hours  flow  as  follows :  northwest  and  southeast,  low  tide ;  north 
and  south,  half  way  to  high  tide ;  northeast  and  southwest,  high 
tide ;  east  and  west,  half  way  to  ebb.  Now  it  must  be  understood 
that  when  the  moon  is  in  the  northwest  and  southeast  the  tide 
will  be  low  on  the  coast  of  Spain,  and  when  it  is  in  the  northeast 
and  southwest  the  tide  will  be  high  along  the  whole  of  the  coast 
of  Spain  and  along  the  coast  of  Berbery  from  the  straits  of 
Cepta ;  this  is  always  so,  whether  the  moon  be  new  or  half  or  full. 

Item.  The  mariners  say,  what  is  indeed  true,  that  from  point 
to  point  of  the  compass  there  is  an  interval  of  three  hours,  the 
eight  points  making  in  all  twenty-four  hours  or  a  natural  day, 
and  that  each  quarter  point  represents  three  quarters  of  an  hour 
and  each  half  point  one  hour  and  a  half,  and  thus  it  [the  day? 
sun?]  advances  regularly  through  all  its  points,  half  points  and 
quarter  points.  When  the  moon  is  new  and  in  conjunction  with 

1  I.e.  the  province  of  Galicia  in  northwest  Spain. 


CALCULATION  OF  TIDES 


33 

the  sun,  being  in  the  southeast,  the  hour  will  be  nine  o’clock 
and  the  tide  will  be  low  on  the  coast  of  Spain  outside  the  straits; 
for  this  reason  the  mariners  say  “  northwest  and  southeast,  low 
tide,”  since  when  the  moon  is  in  the  northwest,  whether  it  be 
new  or  in  any  other  phase,  there  will  be  the  same  low  tide.  On 
the  same  day  when  the  sun  passes,  with  the  moon  in  conjunction, 
to  southeast  by  south  the  tide  w'ill  be  one-eighth  full ;  when  it 
passes  farther  to  the  southsoutheast  it  will  be  a  quarter  full; 
when  it  reaches  south  by  east  the  tide  will  be  three-eighths  full. 
When  the  sun,  with  the  moon  in  conjunction,  is  in  the  south  it 
will  be  midday  and  the  tide  will  be  half  full,  and  therefore  the 
mariners  say  “north  and  south,  half-flow,”  for  when  the  moon 
is  in  the  north  it  makes  the  same  tide ;  when  the  sun  and  moon 
together  are  south  by  west  the  tide  will  be  five-eighths  full,  and 
when  they  are  southsouthwest  the  tide  will  be  seven-eighths  full, 
and  when  the  sun  and  the  moon  together  reach  the  southwest 
the  tide  will  be  high  on  the  coast  of  Spain ;  it  will  then  be  three 
hours  after  noon.  Therefore  the  mariners  say  “northeast  and 
southwest,  full  tide,”  for  the  moon  causes  this  same  tide  when  it 
is  in  the  northeast  no  matter  what  its  phase,  either  in  conjunction 
with  the  sun  or  away  from  it. 

Item.  When  the  sun  and  moon  are  in  conjunction  on  the  day 
of  the  new  moon,  when  they  pass  from  the  southwest  to  south¬ 
west  by  west  the  tide  will  have  ebbed  one-eighth,  and  when  they 
are  at  westsouthwest,  a  quarter;  and  when  they  are  west  by 
south,  three-eighths ;  when  they  both  reach  the  west  it  will  be 
half  ebb  (each  quarter  point  representing  one-eighth  of  the  tide). 
Therefore  the  mariners  say  “eastwest,  half  ebb,”  for  when  the 
moon  is  in  the  east  it  causes  the  same  tide. 

Item.  When  the  sun  and  the  moon  in  conjunction  go  from 
the  west  to  west  by  north  the  tide  will  have  ebbed  five-eighths ; 
when  they  pass  to  westnorthwest  it  will  have  ebbed  three- 
quarters,  at  northwest  by  west  it  will  have  ebbed  seven-eighths, 
and  when  they  reach  the  northwest  it  will  be  low  tide.  Therefore 
the  mariners  say  “northwest  and  southeast,  low  tide.” 

Item.  When  the  sun  and  moon  in  conjunction  are  at  north¬ 
west  by  north  the  tide  will  be  one-eighth  full,  and  at  north- 
northwest  a  quarter;  and  at  north  by  west  three-eighths,  on  the 


HK 


3 


CALCULATION  OF  TIDES 


34 

coast  of  Spain1  as  we  have  already  said ;  therefore  the  mariners 
say  “northeast  and  southwest,  full  tide.” 

Item.  When  the  sun  and  moon,  as  we  have  mentioned  above, 
are  in  northeast  by  east,  the  tide  will  have  ebbed  one-eighth, 
when  they  are  in  the  eastnortheast,  one-quarter ;  when  in  east 
by  north,  three-eighths,  and  when  in  the  east,  half  ebb ;  therefore 
the  mariners  say  “east  and  west,  half  ebb.” 

Item.  Because  the  moon  in  every  twenty-four  hours  (or  one 
natural  day)  after  its  conjunction  recedes  from  the  sun  one 
quarter  point  of  the  compass  if  was  fitting  that  we  should  explain 
in  the  first  section  of  this  twelfth  chapter  why  we  began  to 
calculate  the  tides  at  nine  o’clock  in  the  morning  when  the  sun 
and  moon  were  in  conjunction  in  the  southeast ;  and  now  having 
gone  through  all  the  points  of  die  compass  and  explained  about 
the  tides2,  and  twenty-four  hours  having  passed  since  we  began 
this  work,  and  the  moon  being  three-quarters  of  an  hour  behind 
the  sun,  it  no  longer  makes  the  tide  as  on  the  previous  day  but 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  later,  which  is  one  quarter  point  of 
the  compass.  Because  of  this  it  is  well  that  what  we  have 
explained  should  be  known  and  we  will  end  in  the  southeast 
where  we  began. 

Item.  When  the  sun  and  moon  pass  from  the  east  to  east  by 
south  the  tide  will  have  ebbed  five-eighths,  and  when  they  are 
in  the  southeast  seven-eighths^ ;  and  when  the  sun  is  southeast 
by  south  and  the  moon  southeast  it  will  be  low  tide  on  the  coast 
of  Spain  outside  the  Straits.  For  this  reason  the  mariners  say 
“northwest  and  southeast,  low  tide.”  We  have  already  said  that 
twenty-four  hours  after  the  conjunction  of  the  sun  with  the 
moon  the  tide  is  three-quarters  of  an  hour  later,  and  forty-eight 

*  There  is  a  lacuna  in  the  text  at  this  point.  Judging  by  the  context  the 
original  presumably  contained  the  indications  of  the  state  of  the  tide  when 
the  sun  is  in  north,  north  by  east,  northnortheast,  northeast  by  north  and 
northeast. 

1  Text  corrupt. 

3  Pursuing  Pacheco’s  reasoning,  if  the  tide  has  ebbed  five-eighths  when  the 
sun  is  cast  by  south,  it  will  have  ebbed  three-quarters  when  it  is  eastsouth- 
east  and  seven-eighths  when  it  is  southeast  by  east.  Low  tide,  then,  will 
occur  when  the  sun  is  again  in  the  southeast.  But,  by  hypothesis,  low  tide 
should  occur  a  quarter  point  later,  i.e.  when  the  sun  is  southeast  by  south. 
Vide  Introduction,  pp.  xxvii,  xxviii. 


ANCIENT  COSMOGRAPHY 


35 

hours  after  the  conjunction  it  is  an  hour  and  a  half  later,  each 
twenty-four  hours  representing  one  quarter  point  of  the  com¬ 
pass  ;  he  who  wishes  to  calculate  the  tide  must  therefore  see  in 
what  point  of  the  compass  the  sun  is  and  then  count  the  number 
of  days  which  have  passed  since  the  conjunction,  counting  a 
quarter  point  of  the  compass  for  each  twenty-four  hours  up  to 
fifteen  days  or  less,  and  according  to  the  position  of  the  moon 
will  be  the  tide ;  that  is  to  say,  if  it  is  in  the  southeast  it  will  be 
low  tide  and  if  in  the  southeast  by  south  the  tide  will  be  one- 
eighth  full,  and  so  on,  as  we  have  already  explained.  When  this 
mode  of  calculating  the  tides  of  Spain  is  known  it  will  be 
possible  to  infer  whether  the  tides  in  other  regions  are  the  same 
or  different. 


Chapter  xiii 

How  the  ancient  cosmographers  began  their  description  of 
the  circumference  of  the  globe  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Straits ,  which  order  we  will  follow. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  western  Mediterranean,  where  it  is  said 
that  the  columns  of  Hercules  were  placed,  there  are  two  pro¬ 
montories  which  excel  in  height  and  beauty  all  others  in  those 
parts ;  one  of  these  is  Abila  at  the  beginning  of  Africa  and  the 
other  Calpe  in  Europe1,  and  here,  properly  speaking,  is  the 
mouth  of  the  western  Gaditanian  straits,  the  only  access  to  the 
Ocean  according  to  some  ancient  writers.  These  promontories 
are  now  called  Serra  da  Ximeira1  and  Monte  de  Gibaltar  re¬ 
spectively;  and  from  these  the  best  cosmographers  began  their 
description  of  the  circumference  of  the  earth.  We  will  do  the 
same,  limiting  ourselves  however  to  Africa  and  part  of  Asia,  for 
they  described  Europe  at  such  length  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
say  any  more  about  it.  Although  the  ancient  writers  had  much 
learning  (and  we  might  profit  a  little  from  certain  parts  of  their 

1  Cf.  Pliny,  Natural  History,  book  ill,  Introduction. 

1  I.e.  Jebcl  Must. 

3-a 


CEUTA 


36 

excellent  works)  yet  because  the  navigation  of  Menelaus1  the 
Carthaginian  from  Calez2  past  Ethiopia  of  Guinea  to  the 
Arabian  Gulf  and  of  Eudoxus  from  the  same  place  to  Calez  had 
been  lost  sight  of,  we  can  make  use  of  nothing  in  the  books  of 
the  ancient  cosmographers  for  this  navigation ;  wTe  must  rely  on 
the  discoveries  which  at  great  toil  and  expense  the  aforesaid 
princes  ordered  to  be  made  and  on  that  which  your  Highness 
has  discovered  and  recently  learned.  But  because  those  who 
wrote  of  the  world  lacked  both  the  practical  knowledge  and  the 
foundations  of  the  art  of  seamanship,  which  is  so  necessary  for 
this  matter  that  without  it  we  can  do  or  discover  nothing  by 
sea  (but  they  in  their  cosmography  omitted  it,  either  because 
they  did  not  know  it,  or  did  not  think  it  essential),  and  because 
the  light  of  the  discovery  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe  lies 
principally  in  this  art  of  seamanship  and  in  the  routes  and  ways 
of  the  coast,  it  is  well  that  wre  should  set  forth  and  explain  that 
which  the  ancient  and  modem  writers  alike  omitted,  for  the 
knowledge  and  fulfilment  of  this  navigation  of  the  Ethiopias  of 
Guinea  and  of  India  and  other  parts ;  so  that  if  time  destroys 
the  memory  of  this  navigation,  it  can  soon  be  recovered  and 
reconstructed  from  what  is  here  set  down.  Therefore,  as  a 
foundation  for  our  work  we  will  begin  from  the  promontories 
of  Ximeira  and  Monte  de  Gibaltar,  following  the  order  of  the 
ancient  writers,  and  we  will  describe  the  whole  of  the  coast 
thither  to  the  said  Ethiopia  and  India,  using  the  proper  names 
and  winds  that  mariners  meet  with  and  use,  since  it  cannot  be 
avoided.  Ponta  d’Almina  is  the  actual  part  of  Ximeira  which 
the  ancient  writers  called  Abila*.  Here  is  situated  the  great  and 
excellent  city  of  Cepta4,  of  which  we  give  a  drawing  painted  from 
sight,  as  also  of  Monte  de  Gibaltar,  which  marks  the  beginning 
of  our  western  Straits;  in  the  time  of  its  prosperity  Cepta 
excelled  in  greatness  and  wealth  all  the  other  cities  of  Maure- 
tanya  and  Tingitania  and  also  some  of  those  of  Spain.  This  is 
where  the  lands  of  Africa,  which  abound  in  corn,  wine,  fruits, 

1  Pacheco  obviously  means  Hanno — cf.  Prologue,  p.  i. 

*  I.e.  Cadiz. 

5  It  is  more  usual  to  equate  the  northern  extremity  of  Jcbcl  Musa,  i.e. 
Leona  Point,  with  Abila. 

4  I.e.  Ceuta. 


EL-QSAR  ES  SGIR 


37 

meat  and  many  kinds  of  fish  and  in  many  other  things  worthy 
of  much  praise,  begin,  and  it  is  35$°  north  of  the  Equator,  the 
same  number  of  degrees  as  the  pole  star  is  above  the  horizon1 * *. 
When  the  wind  is  in  the  east  ships  can  shelter  in  Almina  on  the 
western  side,  where  there  is  a  shore  which  is  called  “  O  Porto 
d’el  ReyV*  They  can  anchor  in  twenty  fathoms,  half  a  league 
from  land  on  a  clean  bottom;  when  the  wind  is  in  the  west 
they  can  ride  at  anchor  to  the  east  behind  Almina  on  an  equally 
clean  bottom.  Aqui  mapcO>. 

Item.  Since  we  have  spoken  of  the  two  fair  promontories, 
Abila  in  Africa  and  Calpe  in  Europe,  it  is  reasonable  that  we 
should  now  speak  of  the  great  city  of  Cepta  in  Africa,  situated 
five  leagues  from  the  town  of  Alcacere  Ciguer4,  which  is  outside 
the  strait  by  the  sea.  All  the  country  round  Alcacere  is  wild  and 
mountainous,  and  there  are  two  high  mountains  rising  from  the 
sea ;  the  one  on  the  left  to  the  east  has  an  old  half-ruined  castle 
called  Old  Alcacere5 ;  the  other  mountain  to  the  west  is  called 
Sermil6 7.  For  greater  clearness  we  here  show  Alcacere,  with  part 
of  its  environs,  drawn  from  sight.  The  land  is  very  rich  and 
abounds  in  all  the  necessities  of  life.  On  another  page  we  will 
speak  of  the  very  ancient  and  fortified  city  of  Tanger7.  Any  ship 
having  to  anchor  at  Alcacere  should  look  out  [for  the  place]  in 
the  bay  where  we  have  painted  a  caravel ;  if  it  is  a  small  ship  it 
may  anchor  there  and  if  a  large  one  a  little  farther  out. 

Aqui  rnapa. 

1  Literally  “the  circle  of  the  hemisphere.”  Actually  Ceuta  is  35°  56'  N. 

*  I.e.  Ensenada  de  la  Almadraba;  vide  Mediterranean  Pilot,  vol.  I,  p.  138 
(4th  edition). 

5  Judging  from  the  various  contexts  in  which  this  phrase  occurs,  it  may 
be  construed  to  signify  cither  sketch-map,  chart  or  painting.  Needless  to  say 
the  words  were  inserted  by  the  copyists  to  indicate  the  position  of  the 
“  mapas  "  in  the  original  manuscript.  Vide  Introduction,  p.  xxx. 

4  I.e.  El-Qsar  es  Sgir. 

5  Cf.  Mediterranean  Pilot,  vol.  1,  p.  101  (4th  edition). 

4  Mt  San  Simonito?  Vide  Mediterranean  Pilot,  vol.  I,  p.  10 1  (4th  edition). 

7  I.e.  Tangier. 


3» 


Chapter  xiv 

Concerning  the  routes ,  distinguishing  features ,  soundings , 
and  the  degrees  of  the  Pole  Star  above  the  horizon  in 
going  towards  Guinea  and  India  from  T anger. 

As  things  worthy  of  remembrance  ought  not  to  be  forgotten, 
it  is  fitting  that  we  should  record  what  we  know  of  the  very 
strong  and  ancient  city  of  Tanger,  which  is  five  leagues  from 
Alcacere  outside  the  straits.  In  ancient  times  it  was  called  Tingi, 
as  Pliny  says  in  the  first  chapter  of  the  fifth  book  of  his  Natural 
History ;  this  name  many  years  later  was  changed  to  that  of 
Tanger.  We  have  placed  here  a  picture  of  the  city  and  of  Cabo 
d ’Espartel  drawn  from  sight.  In  latitude  Tanger  is  3 50  15'  north 
of  the  Equator1.  Pomponius  Mela,  a  very  ancient  writer,  in  the 
first  book  of  his  cosmography*  says  that  Tingi  was  built  by  the 
giant  Anteus  who  fought  with  Hercules,  and  that  on  the  outer 
wall  hung  a  very  large  shield  covered  with  elephant  skin ;  it  was 
too  large  to  be  used,  but  the  inhabitants  of  this  land  believed 
that  it  was  carried  by  Anteus  in  battle. 

Item.  Two  leagues  beyond  Tanger  is  the  promontory  of 
Espartel,  so  that  from  Cepta  to  Espartel  is  twelve  leagues ;  Ponta 
d’Almina  lies  ENE  and  WSW  with  respect  to  Espartel,  and  he 
who  makes  this  voyage  should  keep  two  and  a  half  leagues  to 
the  seaward  of  Espartel.  At  this  point  the  tide  flows  during  nine 
hours  towards  the  Straits  and  ebbs  for  three  hours,  differing 
from  the  tides  of  which  we  spoke  above3.  The  whole  of  the 
country  along  the  coast  from  Cepta  consists  of  very  high  moun¬ 
tains  ending  in  Espartel,  and  the  shore  along  this  coast  is  so  deep 
that  ships  can  only  anchor  very  close  to  the  land.  To  the  SSE 
of  Espartel  there  is  a  very  good  anchorage,  with  protection  from 
the  east  [wind],  where  one  can  anchor  in  fifteen,  twenty,  twenty- 
five  and  even  thirty  fathoms,  and  everywhere  the  bottom  is  clean 

*  Actually  35°  49'  N. 

*  De  Situ  Otitis,  book  I,  chap.  5. 

3  Vide  supra,  chap.  12. 


ARZILA 


39 

and  sandy1.  In  a  bay  near  this  cape  a  tunny  fishery  has  been 
established,  in  which  many  boats  have  taken  part;  this  land  is 
very  fertile  in  everything  and  has  many  other  fisheries  besides 
that  of  tunnies  which  we  have  mentioned.  Aqui  mapa. 

Item.  Between  Cabo  d’Espartel  and  Recife  d’Arzila,  which, 
according  to  Pliny  in  the  first  chapter  of  the  fifth  book  of  his 
Natural  History,  was  formerly  called  Liza*,  the  coast  runs  north 
and  south  and  occupies  five  leagues  of  the  route.  The  country 
from  Espartel  along  the  sea  is  all  low  lying  and  has  a  clean 
bottom  and* . . .  hidden  rocks,  so  that  it  is  everywhere  possible  to 
anchor  with  security.  Arzila  is  350  50'  north  of  the  Equator4. 
The  Recife  d’Arzila  should  not  be  entered  without  a  pilot  or 
without  making  use  of  the  marks  which  are  set  up  in  that  neigh¬ 
bourhoods,  to  wit:  two  masts  fixed  in  the  ground  within  the 
channel  by  which  ships  should  enter.  For  greater  clearness  we 
here  showT  the  city  of  Arzila  with  its  reef,  painted  from  sight,  and 
in  the  painting  a  caravel  is  sailing  to  show  the  right  entrance. 
Within  the  reef  small  ships  up  to  thirty-five  tons  can  anchor,  but 
they  should  fasten  their  anchors  [as  a  security]  against  the  north¬ 
west  wind,  which  blows  obliquely  and  is  accompanied  by  a  great 
swell  which  is  dangerous  to  shipping.  All  these  four  places, 
Cepta,  Alcacere,  Tanger  and  Arzila,  belong  to  this  kingdom  of 
Portugal,  and  to  its  royal  crown,  for  it  is  now  about  ninety  years 
since  Cepta  was  captured  by  force  of  arms  from  the  Moors  by 
King  John  I  of  glorious  memory,  your  greatgrandfather;  the 
other  three  were  taken  by  King  Afonso  V,  your  uncle,  forty-seven 
years  ago6,  for  they  waged  fierce  warfare  against  these  enemies 
of  our  holy  catholic  faith,  which  your  Highness  ever  spreads  and 
increases  by  your  many  victories.  Aqui  mapa. 

*  I.e.  Jeremias  anchorage:  “an  open  roadstead  about  4  miles  southward 
of  C.  Spartel . . .  much  resorted  to  by  vessels  prevented  from  entering  the 
Strait3  of  Gibraltar  by  strong  easterly  winds”  ( Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  139, 
9th  edition). 

*  Lissa  in  Pliny. 

*  There  is  a  lacuna  in  the  text  at  this  point.  The  context  appears  only  to 
require  some  such  negative  qualification  as  “without”  or  “free  from.” 

4  Actually  350  28'  N.  5  Text  slightly  corrupt. 

4  Ceuta  was  taken  in  1415,  El-Qsar  es  Sgir  in  1458,  Tangier  and  Arzila  in 
1471.  Vide  Introduction,  pp.  xvi,  xvii. 


4o 


Chapter  xv 

Concerning  the  routes,  distinguishing  features,  soundings 
and  tides  and  the  elevations  of  the  Arctic  Pole  at  and 
beyond  Larache. 

Item.  If  a  ship  leaves  Arzila  to  go  to  Larache  on  a  night  so 
dark  that  the  land  cannot  be  seen,  it  should  stand  out  to  sea  a 
good  league  from  the  reef  [of  Arzila]  and  steer  SSW  for  three 
leagues  from  Arzila,  when  it  will  double  Ponta  das  Barrocas. 
These  Barrocas  are  lofty,  white  sea-cliffs;  and  all  the  country 
between  Arzila  and  Larache  consists  of  low  hills  which  terminate 
in  the  aforesaid  cliffs.  Thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de 
Larache1  is  a  distance  of  two  leagues ;  in  our  time  the  entrance 
to  this  river  is  on  the  SW,  very  near  a  rock  which  has  a  rampart 
with  two  small  towers,  close  to  the  river  at  the  foot  of  the  town 
of  Larache.  This  is  shown  in  the  painting,  made  from  sight, 
which  we  have  placed  here.  The  channel  of  this  river  has  four 
and  a  half  fathoms  of  water  at  high-tide,  and  the  tide  is  northeast 
and  southwest  with  an  ebb  and  flow  of  six  hours  each,  as  in  our 
Spain.  This  river  can  be  recognised  by  the  following  landmarks : 
to  the  SW  is  a  castle  known  as  the  Castle  of  the  Genoese2,  so 
white  as  to  have  the  appearance  of  a  ship’s  sail;  to  the  NE  are 
the  Barrocas,  high  and  white,  as  we  have  said,  and  in  a  bay  there 
is  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  dc  Larache.  Those  who  ascend  this  river 
for  the  distance  of  one  league  will  find  on  their  left  hand  the 
ruined  city  of  Xamez*,  which  formerly  was  a  great  and  wealthy 
city.  It  is  said  that  for  forty  years  after  the  conquest  of  Spain 

*  I.e.  Wad  el  Qua. 

*  In  the  Middle  Ages  this  stretch  of  the  Moroccan  coast  down  to  about 
Sal6  was  the  outlet  for  the  thickly  populated  kingdom  of  Fez.  Genoese, 
Pisan,  Venetian  and  Catalan  merchants  came  to  buy  the  products  brought 
by  caravans  from  the  interior.  The  Genoese  seem  to  have  been  the  most 
successful  traders.  As  early  as  c.  a.d.  iioo  we  hear  of  the  republic  of  Genoa 
entering  into  a  commercial  treaty  with  the  reigning  monarch  Abu-Yakub. 
Later  Pisans,  Catalonians,  Aragonese  entered  into  rivalry  with  the  Genoese, 
but  abandoned  the  contest  ultimately.  The  castle  referred  to  by  Pacheco  was 
presumably  one  of  their  fortified  factories. 

3  Epiphanio  Dias  ( Esmeraldo  de  Situ  Orbis,  cdif§o  critica  annotada,  p.  52) 
is  of  die  opinion  that  this  town  occupied  the  site  of  Pliny's  Lixos — i.e.  the 
modern  Tchemmich. 


WADI  SBU 


41 

by  the  Moors  it  held  out  against  the  Moors  and  was  finally 
destroyed  by  them,  as  being  a  Christian  city.  A  league  seawards 
from  the  mouth  of  this  river  is  a  clean  sandy  bottom  of  twenty- 
five  fathoms,  affording  safe  anchorage  for  shipping;  there  is  also 
good  fishing  in  this  river,  and  the  surrounding  country  produces 
much  com,  but  in  summer  fever  is  rife.  The  latitude  of  the  place 
is  36°  io'  north  of  the  Equator1.  Aqui  mapa. 

Item.  From  the  Rio  de  Larache  to  Halagunas2 3  is  five  leagues, 
and  these  lagoons  have  an  inlet  within  which  there  is  a  lake  which 
only  small  vessels  can  enter ;  above  it  to  the  east  is  a  round  clump 
of  cork-trees,  which  is  the  landmark  for  these  lagoons.  Five 
leagues  beyond  them  is  a  fairly  high  hill  called  Fornilho*. 

Item.  Five  leagues  beyond  Fomilho  is  the  Rio  da  Mamora4. 
From  Larache  thither  this  coast  lies  N  by  E  and  S  by  W;  those 
who  make  this  voyage  should  keep  very  close  to  land  and,  if  it 
is  night,  must  steer  SSW  in  order  to  navigate  it  safely.  This 
Rio  da  Mamora  has,  on  its  south  side,  a  very  high  dark  grey 
cliff*,  and  within  the  entrance  of  the  river  to  the  east  there  is  a 
thicket  running  all  along  another  cliff.  At  the  present  time  this 
river  has  two  entrances ;  one  of  them  lies  northeast  and  south¬ 
west  along  a  headland  of  sand,  which  as  one  enters  should  remain 
on  one’s  right,  three  or  four  stones ’-throws  away;  the  other  lies 
east  and  west  along  a  dark  grey-coloured  cliff  and  has  a  depth 
of  four  and  a  half  fathoms  at  high  tide.  The  tide  flows  northeast 
and  southwest,  six  hours  ebb  and  six  hours  flow ;  small  ships  of 
thirty  tons  can  go  up  this  river  six  or  seven  leagues,  but  large 
vessels  must  remain  lower  down  near  its  mouth.  A  league  within 
the  mouth  of  this  river  is  an  island  with  a  plentiful  supply  of 
wood.  Both  this  river  and  that  of  Larache  are  in  summer  time 
very  rife  with  fever.  At  the  mouth  of  this  river,  and  also  farther 
along,  is  a  clean  anchorage  of  thirty  fathoms  where  ships  may 
anchor  safely,  but  they  must  guard  against  the  northwest  wind, 

1  Actually  35®  12'  N. 

*  These  lagoons  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Old  Mamora:  vide  Africa  Pilot, 
Part  I,  p.  141. 

3  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  142. 

4  I.e.  Wadi  Sbu. 

*  It  is  some  456  ft.  high  and  constitutes  the  landmark  for  the  town  of 
Mehediya:  vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  142. 


SALJ; 


42 

which  blows  obliquely  to  the  shore.  Small  vessels  can  ascend 
this  river  to  the  city  of  Feez  in  winter1 *.  The  country  along  this 
river  is  flat  and  supports  many  flocks  and  many  orange  groves. 

Item.  The  Rio  da  Mamora  and  the  river  and  town  of  £ale3 
(of  which  we  here  give  a  painting  from  sight)  lie  northeast  and 
southwest  and  occupy  seven  leagues  of  the  route.  This  Rio  de 
£ate  can  be  entered  from  the  ESE  side  alongside  a  tower  and  it 
has  a  depth  in  its  channel  of  a  good  two  and  a  half  fathoms  at 
high  tide,  the  tide  flowing  northeast  and  southwest ;  to  the  south 
it  has  another  channel,  and  between  these  two  channels  stretches 
a  very  long  line  of  reefs  with  sandbanks  here  and  there  on  which 
the  sea  breaks  with  force.  The  landmark  of  this  river  is  the  very 
large  and  lofty  tower  of  (pal#,  shaped  as  it  is  here  painted ;  there 
is  not  another  tower  like  it  on  all  this  coast.  The  city  of  (pate  is 
also  large,  but  thinly  peopled.  The  sea  by  this  river  affords  clean 
good  anchorage,  and  at  a  depth  of  fifty  fathoms  one  is  ten  leagues 
from  the  shore.  In  (pale  there  are  three  villages4 5 — we  show  two 
of  them  in  our  drawing;  they  are  situated  on  the  said  river,  one 
of  them  being  towards  Themicinaa,  where  the  Arabs  of  Enxouvia 
dwell,  and  this  village  is  called  Arravalde;  the  other  is  called 
Exale,  which  was  formerly  the  burial  place  of  the  Kings  of  Feez, 
their  other  burial  place  being  in  Hell.  From  Mamora  (where 
the  other  river — called  Cebvi* — which  comes  down  from  Feez 

1  The  Wadi  Sbu  doe*  not  flow  within  5  miles  of  Fez  and  is  not  navigable 
even  for  the  smallest  craft  for  more  than  90  miles  upstream.  (Fez  is  approxi¬ 
mately  250  miles  from  its  mouth.) 

*  I.e.  Wadi  Bu  Regreg  and  Sali  (with  which  Rabat  is  incorporated). 

5  I.e.  Hassan  Tower,  situated  at  the  eastern  end  of  that  town  and  built  by 
the  Emir,  Yakub  el  Mansur.  Leo  Africanus  has  the  following  reference  to  it : 
“  So  exceeding  is  the  height  thereof,  that  I  think  there  is  no  where  the  like 
building  to  be  found :. .  .from  the  top  they  [can]  descry  ships  a  huge  way  into 
the  sea...”  ( History  and  Description  of  Africa,  book  ill,  p.  401,  Hakluyt 
Society).  The  tower  still  stands  180  ft.  high  after  all  these  centuries. 

4  On  the  north  bank  of  the  Wadi  Bu  Regreg  was  the  town  of  old  Sali  (or 
Sali,  Sella,  Sallee).  This  was  the  great  mediaeval  trading  port  of  Morocco 
(vide  Leo  Africanus,  op.  cit.  book  in,  p.  407).  On  the  south  bank  and  im¬ 
mediately  opposite  Sali  was  Rabat  (Rebat  in  Leo  Africanus),  built  by  Yakub 
el  Mansur  in  a.d.  1190.  Also  on  the  south  bank,  but  “two  miles  from  the 
ocean  sea  and  a  mile  from  Rebat”  (Leo,  op.  cit.  p.  403)  stood  the  third  of 
Pacheco’s  "  villages,”  Sheila  (Sella  in  Leo),  the  “Sala  Colonia”  of  the 
Romans.  It  was  here  that  el  Mansur  and  many  other  Almohades  and  Merin- 
ides  were  buried. 

5  I.e.  Wadi  Sbu. 


FDALA 


43 

debouches)  it  is  five  leagues  to  the  town  of  Qa\6.  All  these  three 
places  are  called  by  the  one  name  £ate.  Ten  leagues  from  there 
is  a  small  river  called  Tifil  Felti1 ;  eight  leagues  still  further  on 
is  another  river  called  Bety\  and  from  Bety  to  the  city  of  Feez 
is  seven  leagues.  So  that  from  <pal6  to  Feez  is  twenty-five  leagues, 
and  all  this  country  abounds  in  com,  meat,  fish,  honey  and  many 
other  good  things.  There  are  also  very  good  horses,  which  are 
frequently  brought  to  these  kingdoms*.  Aqui  mapa. 


Chapter  xvi 

Concerning  the  routes ,  landmarks ,  soundings ,  tides  and 
elevations  of  the  pole  star  from  Almancora  and  Fedala  and 
the  country  towards  Guinea  and  India. 

Item.  The  Rio  de  £ald  and  town  of  Almancora  lie  NNE  and 
SSW  and  occupy  seven  leagues  of  the  route.  It  is  said  that  this 
castle  of  Almancora4  was  depopulated  and  destroyed  by  lions,  for 
they  devoured  so  many  of  its  inhabitants  that  the  few  who  were 
left  fled  and  went  to  live  elsewhere.  From  Almancora  to  the 
islands  of  Fedala*  is  about  a  league,  and  the  landmark  of  Fedala 
is  two  islets  where  small  vessels  up  to  eighty  tons  can  anchor  in 
four  and  five  fathoms.  The  bottom  is  sandy  and  clean  and  the 
anchorage  good,  but  those  who  stop  here  should  make  their 
anchors  secure,  because  of  the  strong  surge  at  this  point.  To  any 
one  making  for  this  land  from  the  sea  these  islands  will  not 
appear  to  be  islands,  but  when  approaching  them  from  the  NE, 

'  I.e.  Wadi  Telfil:  cf.  Leo,  op.  at.  p.  412. 

*  Marmol  speaks  of  two  rivers  with  similar  names,  Beht  and  Bchet.  They 
rose  in  the  Atlas  Mountains.  Vide  Harris’s  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels, 
vol.  I,  p.  314. 

5  l.e.  Portugal  and  Algarve.  “ These  kingdoms  M  is  the  expression  habitually 
used  by  Pacheco  when  speaking  of  his  own  country. 

4  The  site  is  now  occupied  by  the  small  town  of  Mansuria. 

5  I.e.  Cape  Fdala — ‘‘a  projection  formed  by  a  chain  of  rocks,  16'  to  50' 

high _ The  summit  of  the  Cape  is  a  little  conical  hill  at  the  north  extreme. 

From  a  distance  the  Cape  has  the  appearance  of  an  island”  ( Africa  Pilot, 
Part  I,  p.  147). 


44 


anaf£ 


one  league  off,  they  will  be  seen  to  be  so.  All  this  coast  is  a 
beach,  and  for  clearer  understanding  we  have  set  here  a  painting 
from  sight  of  the  town  of  Almancora  (with  a  tree  which  serves  as 
a  landmark)  and  of  the  islands  of  Fedala.  Aqui  rnapa. 

Item.  The  town  of  Almancora  and  the  islands  of  Fedala  lie 
with  respect  to  the  bay  of  the  city  of  Anifee1  NE  and  SW,  and 
occupy  five  leagues  of  the  route;  and  all  this  stretch  of  coast 
consists  of  rocky  cliffs,  there  being  little  beach,  and  has  a  dirty* 
bottom.  The  landmark  of  the  city  of  Anifee,  which  is  drawn  here 
from  sight,  is  a  great  bay  with  a  reef  of  rock  close  to  the  land ; 
the  reef  has  a  narrow  entrance  on  its  NE  side  but  on  its  SW  side 
there  is  no  entrance.  Apart  from  this  landmark  the  place  can 
easily  be  recognised  by  the  city  itself  with  its  great  tower  and 
by  the  country  [inland],  which  is  very  flat  and  abounds  in  all 
necessary  products.  It  is  now  some  thirty-eight  years1  since  the 
excellent  Prince  Fernando  your  father  with  a  great  fleet  and  army 
went  in  person  against  this  city  and  entered  it  by  force  of  arms 
and  destroyed  it  and  returned  to  these  kingdoms  with  great 
honour  and  victory ;  this  fall  of  Anifee  came  after  another  serious 
defeat  received  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  years  ago*,  when  all 
the  principal  people  of  the  city  of  Anifee  were  killed  in  the  battle 
of  Salado,  which  was  fought  between  Gibaltar  and  Tarifa  at  a 
place  called  Pena  do  Cervo4.  In  this  battle  the  excellent  prince 
and  magnanimous  knight  King  Afonso  IV  of  these  kingdoms  of 
Portugal,  your  great-great-great-grandfather,  who  lies  buried  in 
the  cathedral  of  Lisbon,  took  part.  He  went  to  the  assistance  of 
his  son-in-law,  King  Afonso  XI  of  Castille,  with  a  large  army 
from  these  kingdoms  when  seven  Moorish  kings  had  invaded 
the  realm  of  Castille  in  very  great  force  and  were  taking  his  land 
from  him.  This  most  serene  Prince  helped  the  King  of  Castille 
to  defend  himself,  for  he  was  unable  to  hold  his  own  against  such 
a  big  enemy  force.  How  great  a  service  this  most  fortunate  King 
rendered  to  God  and  what  honour  he  won  in  this  battle  in  the 
defence  of  His  holy  name  and  of  the  realm  of  Castille  may  be 

1  I.e.  Casablanca  Bay  ( vide  Africa  Pilot,  p.  148).  The  town  of  that  name 
now  occupies  the  site  of  Anaf6. 

1  The  destruction  of  Anaf6  by  Fernando  took  place  in  A.D.  1468. 

3  The  battle  of  Salado  was  fought  in  October  a.d.  1340. 

4  I.e.  Pefla  del  Ciervo,  2  leagues  from  Tarifa. 


AZIMUR 


45 

read  in  his  Chronicle.  In  this  battle  perished  all  the  noble  and 
honourable  men  of  Anifee,  as  we  have  stated,  and  to  this  day 
the  city  has  never  recovered  its  prosperity.  We  could  say  many 
things  of  the  former  grandeur  and  prosperity  of  Anifee,  but  we 
would  not  be  prolix. 

Item.  Leaving  the  bay  of  Anifee  in  the  direction  of  the  SW 
there  is  close  by  a  cape  called  Cabo  do  Camelo1 ;  from  here  to 
Fuma  d’Acicor1  is  ten  leagues,  and  all  this  coast  is  beach  with 
a  clean  bottom,  so  it  is  possible  to  anchor  securely  at  any  point 
along  it.  This  Fuma  d’Acicor  has  above  it  three  hills  of  sand  in 
the  shape  of  pointed  paps*  and  also  a  fairly  tall  wood.  To  the 
NE  of  this  cove  and  4  league  seawards  there  is  a  reef  of  rock  on 
which  the  sea  breaks;  these  are  the  landmarks  of  the  Furna 
d’Acicor.  The  coast  here  lies  NE  and  SW.  Aqui  mapa. 


Chapter  xvii 

Concerning  the  routes ,  landmarks ,  soundings ,  tides  and 
elevations  of  the  pole  star  from  Anifee  to  Azamor  and 
beyond. 


Item.  From  the  Fuma  d’Acicor,  of  which  we  have  spoken 
above,  to  the  river  and  town  of  Azamor4  are  two  leagues,  and 
this  coast  lies  NE  and  SW ;  opposite  this  river  a  league  out  to 
sea  the  bottom  is  all  clean,  being  sand  and  mud,  with  35  and 
40  fathoms,  and  it  is  clean  also  at  twelve  and  thirteen  fathoms, 
but  nearer  to  the  land  it  is  all  dirty,  with  stone  and  rock  which 
cut  the  hawsers.  On  the  first  sandbank  of  this  river,  a  good 
league  outside  its  mouth,  there  are  at  least  four  fathoms  of  water 


*  I.e  Table  d’Aukasha. 

*  I.e.  Azimur  Point.  The  Scossor  of  the  portolan  charts? 

*  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  15  j. 

«  I.e.  Wadi  Umm  er  Rbi’a,  on  the  left  bank  of  which  is  situated  the  town 
of  Azimur. 


KINGDOM  OF.  FEZ 


46 

at  high  tide1 . . . ,  there  are  two  and  a  half  fathoms  of  water.  The 
sea  does  not  break  on  this  shoal,  because  there  is  a  bank  farther 
out  which  breaks  it ;  passing  within  this  latter  sandbank  close  to 
the  town  of  Azamor  there  are  five  to  six  fathoms  of  water. 
At  the  present  time  the  channel  of  this  river  lies  NW  and  SE  and 
only  accommodates  small  vessels.  The  tide  flows  NE  and  SW. 
Since  the  bar  and  channel  of  this  river  often  change,  the  pilot 
who  would  enter  it  should  take  soundings  at  the  bar  or  should 
take  a  local  pilot  in  order  to  enter  safely.  The  landmark  of  this 
river  is  that  two  leagues  to  the  NE  is  the  cape  and  cove  of 
Acicor,  which  we  mentioned  in  a  former  paragraph ;  he  who  sails 
a  league  beyond  this  cape  in  the  direction  of  this  river  will  reach 
the  town  of  Azamor.  Here  there  is  marvellous  shad  fishing,  the 
fish  being  very  large  and  good ;  they  pay  tribute  with  these  to 
your  Highness*.  This  town  of  Azamor  and  its  neighbourhood 
produces  a  great  abundance  of  corn,  meat,  fish  and  many  other 
products ;  and  to  this  town  extends  the  first  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Feez.  And  now  since  we  have  said  something  of  the  places 
along  the  coast,  it  is  fitting  that  we  should  tell  where  it  begins 
and  speak  of  some  of  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  interior  and  of 
the  second  part  of  the  kingdom. 

We  will  now  speak  of  the  kingdom  of  Feez.  It  begins  at 
river  called  Meluya3,  which  divides  it  from  the  kingdom  of 
Tremecem,  and  which  lies  ten  leagues  beyond  Cabo  d’Antre- 
fulcos4;  from  here  to  the  mouth  of  the  straits  of  Cepta  is  fifty 
leagues.  Five  leagues  to  the  west  of  the  Rio  de  Meluya  is 
situated  the  town  of  Melilla5,  which  is  on  the  frontier  between 
Feez  and  Tremecem.  Seven  leagues  west  of  Melilla  is  the  town 
of  Ca9a9a6,  and  twelve  leagues  west  again  is  a  town  called  Belez 
da  Guomeira7.  Thirty'  leagues  beyond  is  situated  the  great  city 

*  There  is  a  lacuna  in  the  text  at  this  point.  The  context  seems  to  require 
only  the  insertion  of  the  words  “on  the  second  sandbank ”  to  complete  the 
sense. 

*  The  town  of  Azimur  was  tributary  to  Portugal  from  1468  to  1542. 

)  I.e.  River  Muluya  which  forms  part  of  the  present-day  boundary  between 
Algeria  and  Morocco  (cf.  Leo  Africanus,  op.  cit.  book  ix,  p.  931). 

4  I.e.  Cap  des  Trois  Fourches. 

5  Called  Millela  in  the  portolan  charts,  e.g.  Vesconte  and  Catalan  Atlas. 

*  The  ChAsasa  of  Leo  Africanus,  vide  History  of  Africa,  book  in,  p.  534. 

7  The  Bedis  of  Leo  (op.  cit.  p.  517). 


KINGDOM  OF  FEZ 


47 

of  Cepta;  thence  extends  the  whole  coast  of  Cepta  outside  the 
Straits,  with  its  rivers,  bays,  harbours,  cities  and  towns  as  far 
as  Azamor,  as  we  have  seen.  In  the  interior  is  the  great  city  of 
Feez,  from  which  the  kingdom  derived  its  name;  eight  leagues 
beyond  Feez  is  situated  the  city  of  Maquinez1;  farther  on  is 
another  very  good  city  called  Teza3.  This  constitutes  the  first 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Feez ;  we  will  now  proceed  to  describe 
the  second  part  and  will  follow  the  order  of  the  coast  from  the 
Rio  d’Azamor  onwards. 

The  second  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Feez3  begins  at  the  Rio 
d’Azamor,  whence  to  the  bay  of  Mazaguam  is  two  leagues;  this 
bay  and  the  river  lie  NE  and  SW  and  occupy  two  leagues  on 
the  route.  Here  formerly  was  the  city  of  Mazaguam,  now  totally 
destroyed4 ;  this  bay  which  is  drawn  here  from  sight  affords  good 
anchorage  for  large  ships,  but  he  who  would  anchor  here*  should 
strengthen  his  cables,  for  the  bottom  is  foul  and,  in  places,  there 
are  rocks  which  cut  the  cables.  It  is  here  that  the  plains  of 
Duquella6,  extending  for  nearly  forty  leagues,  begin ;  the  country 
is  very  rich  in  corn  and  meat.  In  this  bay  of  Mazaguam  many 
ships  of  these  realms  and  of  Castille  take  in  a  cargo  of  wheat 
when  for  our  sins  God  gives  us  none.  These  plains  are  peopled 
by  a  race  of  Moors  called  Xarquya?,  who,  it  is  said,  number  more 
than  40,000  horsemen  but  are  all  unarmed. 


*  The  Mecnase  of  Leo  (op.  cit.  p.  412),  otherwise  called  Mekenes,  Me- 
quenez,  Meknes.  It  was  one  of  the  three  capitals  of  Morocco.  In  Pacheco’s 
day  the  people  of  Mequenez  were  under  the  subjection  of  the  King  of  Fez. 
Actually  it  is  not  beyond  Fez,  but  to  the  seaward  of  it. 

*  The  modem  Tazza  (or  Tese)  and  not  the  Tefza  of  Leo  and  Marmol. 

}  Cf.  Leo,  lot.  cit.  book  1,  p.  125  and  book  n,  p.  283.  At  the  time  when 
Pacheco  wrote  the  Empire  of  Morocco  was  in  a  state  of  political  disintegra¬ 
tion.  The  kingdom  of  Fez,  ruled  by  Mulat  Said,  was  the  effective  power  in 
the  whole  of  the  western  Atlas  region.  In  fact  during  the  second  decade  of 
the  sixteenth  century  the  “king”  of  Morocco  was  a  relation  and  vassal  of  the 
king  of  Fez.  This  state  of  affairs  would  account  for  Pacheco's  extended 
application  of  the  phrase  “kingdom  of  Fez.”  Vide  infra,  pp.  56-7. 

4  From  this  it  seems  that  Pacheco  was  writing  before  1506,  for  in  that 
year  the  Portuguese  built  a  fortified  town  on  the  site  of  the  ruins. 

5  Text  slightly  corrupt. 

6  The  Duccala  of  Leo  Africanus  (op.  cit.  book  II,  p.  283).  Cereals  still 
figure  among  the  list  of  exports  from  this  region,  barley,  wheat  and  maize 
being  the  most  important. 

7  Cf.  Leo,  op.  cit.  book  ct,  p.  990. 


TIT 


48 

Item.  The  bay  of  Mazaguam  and  the  town  of  Tyty1  lie  NE 
by  E  and  SW  by  W  and  occupy  two  leagues  of  the  route.  About 
a  half  league  or  a  little  more  before  reaching  Tyty  is  a  bay  of 
fair  size,  with  room  for  ten  or  twelve  small  vessels  and  with  a 
small  ruined  tower  behind  it.  Tyty  is  distinguishable  by  a  very 
high  tower2,  and  also  by  a  small  bay  into  which  ships  can  sail 
in  calm  weather;  however  they  should  guard  against  the  NW 
wind  which  blows  across  the  bay  and  makes  the  sea  very  rough. 
Formerly  this  town  of  Tyty  had  a  large  population,  but  now  it 
has  only  a  fourth  part  of  its  former  population ;  the  country  is 
very  rich  in  com,  meat  and  fish.  Aqui  mapa. 


Chapter  xviii 

Concerning  the  routes ,  soundings ,  landmarks  and  elevations 
of  the  pole  star  from  Tyty  to  the  country  beyond ,  forming 
the  second  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Feez. 

Item.  The  town  of  Tyty  and  Casa  do  Cavaleiro3  lie  ENE 
and  WSW  and  are  seven  leagues  apart.  This  Casa  do  Cavaleiro 
appears  above4  in  the  sketch,  which  was  drawn  from  sight.  For 
landmark  it  has  a  large  house  on  the  top  of  a  plateau,  and  on  the 
shore  there  is  a  great  reef  which  can  be  entered  on  the  NE  side 
near  a  small  island.  Inside  there  is  a  cove  in  which  ships  of 
eighty  tons  burden  can  ride  at  anchor,  but  they  should  have  four 
hawsers  (two  at  the  prow  and  two  at  the  stem)  on  account  of 
the  heavy  ground  swell;  there  is  a  clean  bottom  of  seven  and 
eight  fathoms.  At  this  Casa  do  Cavaleiro  there  is  much  wheat 
and  barley  and  many  ships  take  in  a  cargo  of  it;  there  is  likewise 

*  Probably  the  Teturit  of  the  Catalan  maps.  Leo  speaks  of  it  as  Tit  {vide 
History  of  Africa,  book  11,  p.  288). 

*  “The  ruins  of  Tit,  situated  about  3  miles  NE  of  C.  Blanco,  consist 
mostly  of  the  remains  of  a  number  of  square  towers  ”  {Africa  Pilot,  Part  I, 
P-  *53)- 

3  El  Waladieh?  Vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  153. 

4  From  the  context  it  would  seem  that  there  is  a  slight  “  lapsus  ”  here,  and 
that  Pacheco  wishes  actually  to  refer  to  the  "mapa”  below. 


CAPE  KANTIM 


49 

an  abundance  of  meat  and  game.  Out  at  sea  in  fifty  and  sixty 
fathoms  there  is  good  pixotas1  fishing,  as  well  as  many  other 
kinds  of  fish ;  those  who  go  there,  however,  should  beware  of  the 
Arabs  and  take  hostages,  for  they  are  very  evil-disposed  people. 

Aqui  mapa. 

This  is  the  Casa  do  Cavaleiro,  which  the  Moors  in  their 
language  call  Ugueer\  and  to  facilitate  its  identification  we  have 
given  a  painting  of  it  here.  The  Casa  do  Cavaleiro  and  Cabo 
de  Cantim  lie  east  and  west  and  occupy  seven  leagues  of  the  route. 
He  who  sails  for  this  cape  should  guard  against  a  rocky  shoal 
beneath  the  water  at  a  little  over  half  a  league  to  the  NW ;  this 
shoal  is  very  dangerous  and  many  ships  have  been  lost  there, 
and  when  the  sea  flows  in  it  breaks  on  it.  The  landmarks  of  this 
Cabo  de  Cantim  are  that  on  its  northern  side  the  land  projects 
above  it  in  the  shape  of  a  hat,  that  at  this  point  the  coast  turns 
south,  and  that  its  latitude  is  33^°  north  of  the  Equator3 ;  these 
three  facts  serve  as  distinguishing  features.  He  who  leaves  Cabo 
d’Espartelor  Arzilatogoto  Cantim  ought,  on  getting  three  leagues 
out  to  sea,  to  maintain  a  southwesterly  course ;  by  doing  so  he 
will  keep  outside  the  bay,  for  Cantim  and  Espartel  lie  NE  and 
SW  and  occupy  eighty-two  leagues  of  the  route.  He  who  wishes 
to  come  in  and  anchor  at  the  Casa  do  Cavaleiro  should  study 
this  drawing,  which  shows  the  passage  between  the  mainland 
and  the  islands.  He  should  anchor  inside  [the  reef]  in  eight 
fathoms4,  using  four  hawsers,  two  from  the  prow  and  two  from 
the  stem.  Aqui  mapa. 

Item.  The  above-mentioned  Cabo  de  Cantim  and  Ponta  do 
Canaveal5  lie  N  by  W  and  S  by  E  and  occupy  five  leagues  of 
the  route;  at  Ponta  do  Canaveal  is  a  very  good  spring  and  its 
landmark  is  a  high  hill  behind  it.  Ships  often  take  in  water 
there ;  but  he  who  lands  there  should  set  a  man  to  keep  watch, 
for  the  Arabs  when  they  see  a  Christian  endeavour  to  kill  him. 

1  Literally  **  little  fish." 

a  The  Benimegher  Mountain  of  Leo  Africanus?  His  description  runs  as 
follows:  “Benimegher  is  distant  from  Azafi  about  12  miles. .  .this  mountain 
is  so  exceedingly  fruitful  for  oil  and  com  that  a  man  would  scarce  believe  it  ” 
(History  of  Africa,  book  n,  p.  295).  J  Cape  Kantim  is  actually  320  33' N. 

*  There  is  a  lacuna  here  which  cannot  be  filled  with  certainty.  However,  it 
does  not  appear  to  spoil  the  sense.  5  I.e.  Cape  Safi. 


HK 


4 


SAFI 


5° 

A  little  more  than  half  a  league  beyond  Ponta  do  Canaveal  is  the 
city  of  Qafy1,  which  pays  tribute  to  your  Highness,  and  which  is 
here  portrayed.  It  is  situated  near  the  sea  and  all  round  about  the 
coast  is  beach  and  inhospitable.  If  a  vessel  anchors  off  here  it  must 
beware  of  the  west  wind  which  blows  across  this  harbour.  This  city 
of  £afy  is  rich  in  com,  meat  and  fish  and  has  many  good  horses, 
which  are  obtained  from  the  Arabs.  Some  of  them  are  brought  to 
these  realms.  Here  also  we  find  gold1,  which  the  Arabs  bring  by 
land  from  Guinea,  hides  of  all  kinds  in  abundance,  honey  and 
wax,  as  well  as  other  merchandise,  on  which  a  good  profit  is  made. 

Thirty  leagues  beyond  the  city  of  £afy  inland  is  the  great 
city  of  Marrocos3  with  its  twenty-four  gates.  In  the  days  of  its 
prosperity,  so  it  is  said,  a  thousand  horsemen  with  their  captain 
would  go  out  by  each  gate.  When  the  Moors  conquered  Spain 
in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  719,  they  took  from  Sevilha  and  its 
churches  ninety  large  bells,  which  to-day  are  kept  in  the  tower 
of  the  principal  mosque ;  they  have  no  clappers  but  are  preserved 
as  a  memorial.  Eight  of  the  gates  are  lined  with  bronze ;  these 
also  came  from  Sevilha.  Although  this  city  is  still  very  big  and 
populous  and  one  of  the  chief  places  of  Africa,  to-day  it  does  not 
possess  a  thirtieth  part  of  its  former  population,  for  most  of  its 
best  men  fell  in  the  battle  of  Salado  with  those  of  Anifee,  as  we 
stated  above.  We  have  read  that  St  Augustine4  was  a  native  of 

*  I.e.  Safi  (alternatively  Saffee,  Sefi,  Saffi,  Asafi,  Azafi,  Asafie,  etc.).  The 
Portuguese  captured  Safi  in  r5o8  (vide  E.  Prestage,  Portuguese  Pioneers, 
p.  r79),  which  hardly  agrees  with  Pacheco’s  statement  that  it  was  paying 
tribute  to  the  Portuguese  at  the  time  of  his  writing — presumably  a.d.  1505-6. 
Leo  African  us  (op.  cit.  book  II,  p.  288)  says,  however,  that  the  Portuguese 
conquered  the  town  “in  the  year  of  Hegira,  920” — i.e.  in  920  plus  485(6) 
which  is  a.d.  1505-6.  For  a  detailed  history  of  Safi  vide  R.  Brown’s  note  on 
pp.  367  et  seq.  of  vol.  II  of  Leo  Africanus’s  History  of  Africa  (Hakluyt  Society). 

*  Cadamosto  confirms  this,  for  he  tells  us  that  the  gold  of  Melli  was 

carried  northwards  along  three  different  routes,  one  of  which  led  from 
Timbuktu  via  Hoden  (Pacheco’s  Audcm)  to  Oran,  Ona,  Fez,  Morocco, 
Arzila,  Azafi  and  Messa  (vide  C.  Schefer’s  edition  of  Cadamosto' s  Voyages, 
p.  63).  *  I.e.  Morocco  or  Marrakesh. 

4  Pacheco  is  confusing  St  Augustine  with  the  patron  saint  of  Morocco. 
St  Augustine  was  a  native  of  Tagaste,  a  town  in  Numidia,  and  was  bom  in 
a.d.  354.  Marrakesh  was  only  founded  in  a.d.  1062.  There  was,  however, 
some  excuse  for  Pacheco’s  mistake,  because  in  his  day  there  was  a  monument 
in  the  town  of  Aghmat  (the  capital  of  the  Almoravides  before  the  founding  of 
Marrakesh — lying  to  the  south  of  that  city)  which  the  people  affirmed  to 
cover  the  grave  of  St  Augustine,  whom  they  called  St  Belabech  (vide 
R.  Brown,  op.  cit.  p.  359). 


WADI  TENSIFT 


51 

this  city  and  went  thence  to  Italy,  where  he  learnt  Latin  letters 
and  the  Latin  language  and  by  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
became  a  Christian. 

Item.  At  twelve  to  fifteen  leagues  inland  from  Qafy  towards 
Marrocos  and  also  off  the  road  [to  Marrocos]  are  the  following 
places :  Almedina1,  Alhamiz*,  Bulanham5,  Coeyta4  and  Tedenez5, 
which  of  old  was  great  but  is  now  uninhabited.  Having  said 
this  much,  it  now  behoves  us  to  keep  to  our  purpose  and  return 
to  £afy  and  from  there  describe  in  order  the  other  places  along 
the  sea-coast.  Aqui  mapa. 


Chapter  xix 

Concerning  the  routes ,  landmarks  and  degrees  of  elevation 
of  the  pole  star  above  the  horizon  from  Qafy  and  other 
places  beyond. 

Item.  £afy  and  the  Rio  dos  Savees6  lie  N  and  S,  and  occupy 
five  leagues  of  the  route.  This  river  is  very  small,  and  only  small 
boats  can  enter  it;  we  will  not  therefore  speak  of  its  tides  nor 
of  its  distance  from  the  Equator.  On  the  south  side,  acting  as 
a  landmark,  is  a  high  mountain  range  running  from  E  to  W  and 
called  the  Ferrarias?;  on  the  north  side  there  is  a  single  high 

1  Literally  "the  city.”  Every  large  town  in  Morocco  has  a  "medinah” 
section.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  this  town  is  to  be  identified  with  Leo’s 
Alemdin  (vide  History  of  Africa,  book  11,  pp.  299,  383-4)- 

*  A  lost  city?  "All  over  the  region  of  Morocco. .  .are  scattered  ruins  of 
what  seem  to  have  been  large  towns  or  villages,  the  desertion  or  destruction 
of  which  is  attributed  to  famines  and  epidemics,  or  to  the  vengeance  of 
Sultans,  powerful  chiefs,  and  the  ‘Rumc’  or  Christians”  (R.  Brown,  op.  cit. 

15  J^The  Bulahuan  of  Leo  and  the  Tabulawan  of  modem  times.  It  is  located 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Umm-er  Rbi’a  not  far  from  Meshra  Bu  el  Avan  (vide 
R.  Brown,  op.  cit.  p.  377). 

*  Another  lost  city? 

5  Leo  speaks  of  a  Tednest,  but  this  town  was  not  destroyed  until  15x6. 

6  I.e.  Wadi  Tenaift,  vide  Africa  Pilot ,  Part  I,  p.  156. 

1  I.e.  Jebel  Hadid  or  the  Iron  Mountains,  which  extend  some  20  miles 
behind  the  coast  between  Wadi  Tcnsift  and  Hadid  Point  and  attain  an 
elevation  of  c.  2300  ft. 

4-2 


MOGADOR 


52 

isolated  mountain  which  comes  down  to  the  bank  of  the  river 
and  the  sea  breaks  against  it.  The  entrance  to  this  river  is 
between  two  rocks. 

Item.  The  Rio  dos  Savees  and  the  island  of  Moguador  lie 
ENE  and  WSW,  and  occupy  seven  leagues  of  the  route;  this 
island  is  small,  not  larger  than  the  Berlengas1.  It  has  two 
approaches,  one  on  the  NE  and  the  other  to  the  WSW,  and 
from  the  mainland  to  this  island  is  a  good  arrow  shot.  On  the 
mainland  and  close  to  the  sea  there  is  plenty  of  fresh  water 
flowing  into  the  sea.  Of  these  two  approaches  to  this  island 
harbour  and  anchorage  the  better  is  that  on  the  NE,  for  the 
other  is  dirty  and  rocky,  but  a  ship  of  a  hundred  tons  can  enter 
by  the  good  approach ;  however  it  should  make  itself  fast  with 
anchor  and  hawser,  the  hawser  being  attached  to  the  island.  It 
will  find  six  or  seven  fathoms  here  and  a  safe,  clean  bottom ;  but 
all  around  for  a  distance  of  half  a  league  the  bottom  is  dirty  and 
rocky  and  any  ship  anchoring  there  will  lose  its  anchor.  This 
island  is  of  a  fair  height3  and  on  its  northern  coast  it  has  a  small 
but  very  lofty  islet  which  has  a  ravine  in  the  centre,  into  which 
the  sea  penetrates  and  upon  which  it  breaks  with  a  resounding 
roar.  In  the  year  of  Our  Lord  15063  your  Highness  ordered  a 
castle  to  be  built  on  the  mainland  in  this  town  of  Moguador 
hard  by  the  sea,  called  Castello  Real.  This  was  constructed  and 
commanded  by  Dieguo  d’Azambuja,  a  knight  of  your  household 
and  Commander  of  the  Order  of  S.  Bento  da  Comenda  d ’Alter 
Pedroso.  He  was  greatly  beset  by  the  opposition  and  attacks  of 
the  barbarians  and  Arabs,  who  united  to  fight  with  all  their  might 
against  the  builders  of  the  castle,  but  the  castle  was  completed 
notwithstanding  and  the  glory  of  victory  rested  with  your  Sacred 
Majesty.  This  and  many  other  things  that  I  might  mention  are 
objects  of  admiration,  as  is  the  conquest  of  the  Indies,  still  more 

1  The  archipelago  of  that  name  found  off  the  west  coast  of  Portugal  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Cape  Carvoeiro. 

1  Mogador  Island  is  not  more  than  100  ft.  high  but  it  is  surrounded  on 
almost  all  sides  by  islets  that  rise  sharply  from  the  water’s  edge.  None  of 
these,  however,  is  “very  lofty” — vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  156. 

i  This  fort  was  erected  by  the  Portuguese,  not  to  hold  the  country  but  to 
protect  their  traders  who  called  in  there,  and  to  keep  up  communication 
between  Safi  and  Agadir.  As  Pacheco  refers  to  the  event  in  the  past  tense,  it 
would  seem  that  he  was  now  writing  after  a.d.  1506. 


CAPES  SIM  AND  GHIR  53 

so  because  it  is  your  Majesty  who  has  done  this  and  many  other 
excellent  works. 

Item.  Castello  Real  and  the  island  of  Moguador  lie  N  by  E 
and  S  by  W  with  respect  to  Cabo  do  Seem1  and  occupy  five 
leagues  of  the  route;  from  Moguador  to  this  Cabo  do  Seem 
there  are  only  rocky  shoals,  and  although  you  can  circumvent 
these  shoals  by  going  S  by  W,  for  greater  safety  you  should  sail 
SSW,  and  especially  when  navigating  at  night.  This  Cabo  do 
Seem  is  narrow  and  low,  and  provides  anchorage  with  shelter 
from  the  E  to  the  NW  on  its  south  side ;  here  in  seven  and  eight 
fathoms,  a  gunshot  from  land,  it  is  possible  to  drop  anchor  on 
to  a  clean  bottom,  but  a  large  ship  should  anchor  farther  out 
to  sea. 

Item.  Cabo  do  Seem  and  Tafetana*  lie  N  and  S  and  occupy 
three  leagues  of  the  route.  Tafetana  is  a  very  large  cliff  of  rock 
as  high  as  Cabo  de  Sam  Vincente,  jutting  into  the  sea.  Behind 
it  is  a  small  creek  which  can  give  anchorage  to  fifteen  or  twenty 
vessels  of  sixty  tons;  he  who  enters  this  harbour  should  sail 
close  to  this  cliff  for  at  a  distance  of  two  stones’  throws  is  a 
dangerous  shoal  where  the  sea  breaks,  but  inside  it  ships  can 
find  very  good  clean  anchorage — opposite  a  mosque — in  seven 
fathoms.  Thence  by  going  two  leagues  in  a  N-S  direction 
they  will  find  another  bay  called  Zebiliquy*,  in  which  twelve  or 
thirteen  ships  of  sixty  tons  can  anchor.  There  are  six  or  seven 
fathoms  of  water  here ;  moorings  should  be  made  with  anchor 
and  hawser.  This  bay  is  sheltered  from  NW  to  SE  and  its  land¬ 
mark  is  a  white  road  which  descends  a  very  steep  hill  to  the  sea. 

Item.  The  bay  of  Zebiliquy  and  Cabo  de  Guer4  lie  NE  by  N 
and  SW  by  S,  and  occupy  eight  leagues  of  the  route.  The  signs 
by  which  you  may  identify  this  cape  are  a  very  high  plateau  like 
a  table  projecting  over  it,  and  the  fact  that  the  coast  along  it  lies 
ESE  and  WNW.  However,  if  a  vessel  wishes  to  sail  from  Cabo 
de  Cantim  to  Cabo  de  Guer  it  ought  to  proceed  SW  by  S  for 
20  leagues,  that  is  to  say  as  far  as  the  island  of  Moguador,  which 

'  I.e.  Cape  Sim,  310  24'  N. 

*  I.e.  Cape  Tafelneh,  the  Tefethne  of  Leo  Africanua:  vide  History  of 
Africa,  book  II,  p.  243. 

s  Imsouan  Bay? 

4  I.e.  Cape  Ghir. 


54 


CAPE  GHIR 


will  then  be  5  leagues  to  the  ESE ;  by  sailing  south  for  24  leagues 
from  here,  it  will  arrive  at  Cabo  de  Guer.  This  is  the  exact 
route  for  those  leaving  Cantim  for  the  said  Cabo  de  Guer:  in 
this  way  they  will  sail  safely  across  the  bay.  Cabo  de  Guer  is 
310  25'  north  of  the  Equator1.  Behind  the  cape  the  coast  follows 
an  eastwest  direction,  and  the  whole  of  the  country  behind  the 
cape  is  very  mountainous:  the  mountains5  are  visible  behind  the 
cape  from  the  open  sea  as  one  is  approaching  it,  and  also  from 
inside  it.  There  are  three  landmarks  by  which  the  cape  may  be 
readily  recognised :  the  country  we  have  described,  the  flat  land 
which  projects  over  the  front  of  the  cape  in  the  shape  of  a  table, 
and  thirdly  the  fact  that  the  coast  trends  in  an  east  and  west 
direction  at  this  point.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  the  latitude 
of  the  place.  He  who  is  six  leagues  out  to  sea  from  Cabo  de  Guer 
will,  in  good  weather,  see  the  peaks  of  the  Clear  Mountains*: 
these  are  so  lofty  that  they  seem  to  touch  the  clouds.  In  this 
mountain-range  is  a  very  pointed  peak  which  is  lower  than  the 
others  and  which  has  on  it  a  castle  called  Palma4.  In  this  same 
range  2  leagues  farther  on  from  this  castle  is  another  one  called 
Turucuco;  3  leagues  beyond  is  another  castle  called  Tucurumu ; 
and  1  league  farther  on  again  is  another  castle  called  Taramate. 
Along  this  coast  for  4  leagues  to  the  SW5,  there  is  good  clean 
anchorage  for  ships  at  whatever  number  of  fathoms  they  may 
wish.  Here,  too,  there  is  an  abundance  of  pixotas  and  many  other 
kinds  of  fish.  He  who  would  anchor  off  Tamarate  [rtc]  should 
come  in  close  to  land  and  make  fast  in  7  to  12  fathoms,  for  here, 
as  well  as  further  in,  he  will  find  a  clean  bottom  and  be  able  to 
moor  in  safety.  Further  out  all  the  bottom  is  dirty  as  far  as 
Auguoa  de  Narbaa. 

*  Actually  30°  35'  N. 

1  These  are  the  heights  of  Idantenan,  which  form  the  western  extremity  of 
the  Atlas  Mountains  and  attain  an  elevation  of  more  than  4000  ft. 

}  I.e.  the  Atlas  Mountains,  vide  chap.  xxi. 

4  In  this  part  of  the  Atlas  country  castles  or  "  ksars  ”  (i.e.  fortified  villages) 
are  very  numerous.  Leo  African  us  speaks  of  three  in  the  province  of  Cheneg 
(i.e.  Southern  Morocco)  and  it  is  possible  that  they  are  to  be  identified  with 
those  mentioned  by  Pacheco,  although  only  one  is  named,  vi2.  Tammaracrost 
(i.e.  Tamarate?).  Vide  History  of  Africa,  book  VI,  p.  781. 

5  Southeast?  Vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  160. 


55 


Chapter  xx 

Concerning  the  routes ,  landmarks  and  latitudes 
of  places  beyond  Cabo  de  Gtier. 

Item.  Cabo  de  Guer  and  Auguoa  de  Narbaa1  lie  ESE  and 
WNW  and  occupy  ten  leagues  of  the  route.  The  landmark  of 
Angra  [sic]  de  Narbaa  is  a  lofty  hill  behind  it  with  some  huts 
on  top.  Below  on  the  shore  is  the  castle  of  Santa  Cruz*,  com¬ 
manding  the  said  bay,  in  which  any  large  ship  can  find  clean 
good  anchorage  at  whatever  depth  it  requires.  It  is  a  notable 
thing  that  your  Highness  should  have  ordered  the  construction 
of  this  fortress  by  Joham  Lopez  de  Sequeira  in  a  land  of 
barbarians,  enemies  of  our  holy  catholic  faith,  who  came  in 
countless  multitudes  to  oppose  its  construction,  and  that  the 
enterprise  was  directed  and  carried  out  by  force  of  arms  from 
the  other  side  of  the  sea,  50  leagues  from  your  Highness’  realms, 
the  opposition  notwithstanding,  according  to  your  good  and  holy 
purpose.  This  fortress  is  situated  by  the  sea,  and  it  is  easily 
recognised,  because  all  the  other  castles  in  the  vicinity  of  Cabo 
de  Guer  are  on  the  mountains,  while  this  castle,  as  we  have  said, 
is  by  the  sea.  This  country  is  rich  in  com,  meat,  fish,  honey,  wax, 
hides,  and  many  other  commodities  which  yield  good  profit. 
There  is  also  gold,  which  the  Moors  bring  from  Guinea  overland. 
For  greater  clearness  we  here  give  a  painting  of  this  fortress  of 
Santa  Cruz. 

Item.  The  castle  of  Santa  Cruz  in  the  Auguoa  de  Narbaa 


1  I.e.  Agadir  Bay. 

1  I.e.  Agadir.  Leo  African  us  calls  it  Gartguessem,  probably  the  name  of 
the  native  village  (vide  History  of  Africa,  book  u,  p.  253)  before  the  Portu¬ 
guese  began  to  establish  a  foothold  there  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  Santa  Cruz  did  not  long  remain  in  their  hands,  however,  for  in  1536 
the  Sheriff  Mulai  Mohammed  el  Arrani,  aided  by  a  Genoese  renegade, 
besieged  it  with  an  army  of,  it  is  said,  50,000  men  and,  after  a  stout  defence 
by  the  garrison,  captured  it  by  mining  the  walls  with  gunpowder.  After  this 
the  place,  under  the  name  of  Agadir,  remained  in  the  Sultan’s  hands  and  for 
many  years  was  the  entrep6t  of  an  extensive  trade  with  Timbuktu  and  the 
Sudan,  the  port  being  the  best  in  Morocco  and  the  natural  outlet  for  the  rich 
province  of  Sus. 


MESA 


56 

and  the  Rio  de  Meca1 *  lie  NW  and  SE  and  occupy  eight  leagues 
of  the  route.  There  is  a  clean  bottom  as  far  as  Tefinete3 4,  which 
is  five  leagues  from  the  Auguoa  de  Narbaa.  From  this  point  to 
Meca  it  is  dirty,  and  all  along  this  coast  there  is  beach.  Opposite 
Meca  a  league  and  a  half  out  at  sea  it  is  shallow,  there  being 
places  where  the  depth  is  not  more  than  two  or  three  fathoms. 
When  the  wind  is  blowing  strongly  from  the  N  or  NE  all  these 
shallows  break  into  foam,  so  that  ships  going  to  this  land  always 
anchor  two  leagues  from  the  shore,  and  if  it  be  a  large  ship  even 
farther  out.  A  wise  pilot  will  always  anchor  in  the  offing  for  the 
safety  of  his  ship.  Half  a  league  before  reaching  Rio  de  Meca 
there  is  a  mosque  on  a  slope  rather  more  than  a  gunshot  from 
the  sea;  from  there  to  the  landing-place  of  Meca  is  two  leagues 
on  the  same  NW  and  SE  route  from  Auguoa  de  Narbaa.  As  soon 
as  you  get  opposite  the  shore  of  the  said  landing-place  you  will 
see  a  road  leading  to  a  ruined  house ;  this  resembles  a  limekiln 
and  is  nearly  half  a  league  distant  from  the  sea  on  a  plateau. 
Small  vessels  of  twenty  to  twenty-five  tons  can  anchor  there  in 
a  creek  in  twenty  fathoms  on  a  clean  bottom ;  they  should  use 
both  anchor  and  hawser  and  should  neither  pass  beyond  this 
road  nor  yet  stop  short  of  it,  for  the  anchorage  is  at  this  exact  spot. 

In  Meca*  there  are  three  villages  inland  about  one  league  from 
the  sea ;  all  three  have  the  name  of  Meca  and  are  fairly  pro¬ 
sperous.  Here  is  the  boundary  of  the  second  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Feez*,  which  begins  at  the  Rio  de  Meluya  fifty  leagues  within 
the  Straits  beyond  the  city  of  Cepta ;  for  this  river  divides  Feez 
from  the  kingdom  of  Tremecem,  as  we  have  said  in  the  second 
paragraph  of  the  seventeenth  chapter  of  this  book.  From  this 
same  Rio  de  Meluya  along  the  coast  to  the  town  of  Azamor  is 
130  leagues,  and  this  forms  the  first  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Feez ; 
from  Azamor  to  Meca  is  the  second  part,  with  eighty  leagues  of 
coast.  All  told  therefore,  Feez  has  210  leagues  of  coastline.  It 

1  I.e.  Wadi  Mesa. 

*  Suwanieh?  9  miles  south  of  Agadir.  The  Africa  Pilot  speaks  of  a  change 
in  the  character  of  the  coast  at  this  point  which  might  easily  be  productive 
of  "a  dirty  bottom”  (Part  1,  p.  162). 

1  I.e.  Mesa,  Messa  or  Massat;  cf.  Leo  Africanus,  op.  cit.  book  n,  pp.  248, 
341.  The  Africa  Pilot  speaks  of  two  villages  in  this  vicinity  (Part  I,  p.  162). 

4  Vide  supra,  p.  47. 


KINGDOM  OF  FEZ 


57 

is  a  country  rich  in  corn  and  meat  and  other  products,  while  its 
seas  abound  in  fish.  The  King  of  Feez  is  able  to  take  the  field 
with  100,000  horsemen.  As  for  the  merchandise  of  this  realm, 
there  is  an  abundance  of  wheat  and  barley,  honey,  wax,  dates, 
indigo,  hides,  skins  and  many  good  horses,  with  other  articles 
of  great  value  which  are  daily  purchased  and  brought  to  these 
realms.  The  products  of  our  country  which  are  valued  in  the 
kingdom  of  Feez  are  silver  and  red,  blue,  green,  purple  and 
yellow  cloths ;  the  finer  they  are  the  more  they  are  prized.  They 
also  buy  Dutch  linens,  fine  handkerchiefs  and  other  coarser  ones, 
which  they  call  “bordateis.”  All  kinds  of  arms  and  tools  they 
would  willingly  buy,  for  they  have  great  lack  of  them ;  but  since 
it  is  forbidden  by  the  Holy  Fathers  in  Rome  and  by  the  laws  of 
your  kingdom  to  sell  arms  to  infidels,  no  one  dares  do  this.  What 
w-e  have  said  is  a  summary  of  the  kingdom  of  Feez,  its  might 
and  the  character  of  its  products.  The  fortune  of  its  people  is 
to  believe  in  the  error  of  the  sect  of  Mahomet  who,  they  consider, 
was  truly  a  messenger  of  God  sent  to  this  ignorant  people  for 
the  remission  of  their  sins ;  but  he  taught  them  all  the  vices  and 
abuses  of  the  body  and  nothing  at  all  of  virtue,  for  his  primary 
intention  was  to  destroy  all  that  is  difficult  to  believe  or  irksome 
to  perform.  In  his  complacence  he  granted  them  those  things 
to  which  vicious  and  miserable  men  are  inclined,  especially  in 
Arabia,  where  Mahomet  was  born,  for  its  inhabitants  make  lust 
and  greed  and  rapine  their  continual  pursuit.  As  these  perverse 
people  are  hostile  to  our  holy  Catholic  faith,  the  kings  of  these 
realms  from  the  time  of  King  John  of  glorious  memory  have 
always  waged  war  unsparingly  against  them  and  have  captured 
the  four  towns  which  I  mentioned  in  the  third  paragraph  of  the 
fourteenth  chapter  of  this  book. 


Chapter  xxi 

Concerning  the  Clear  Mountain  and  their  excellence 
and  the  fabled  Mount  Atlas. 

As  we  have  undertaken  to  describe  the  noteworthy  and  memorable 
things  of  Africa,  it  is  right  that  we  should  not  omit  the  Clear 
Mountains,  situated  near  the  harbour  of  Meca,  for  there  are  few 
countries  in  the  world  of  equal  beauty  and  height,  so  that  they 
must  be  accounted  one  of  the  noble  sights  of  Africa1.  They  are 
situated  in  the  interior  some  ten  leagues  from  Meca,  and  the 
Moors  in  their  language  call  them  Gibel2.  It  is  said  that  Rodrigo, 
King  of  Spain,  reigned  over  the  country  from  the  Straits  of 
Cepta  to  these  mountains,  all  this  country  being  then  inhabited 
by  Christians,  and  he  entitled  himself  Lord  of  the  Clear 
Mountains.  They  yield  much  corn,  fruit,  honey,  wax,  and 
raisins  and  much  iron,  copper,  hides  and  good  fresh  water  and 
much  other  profitable  merchandise  which  the  inhabitants  of 
these  mountains  take  to  the  port  of  Meca  to  sell.  Particularly 
noteworthy  are  the  size  and  height  of  these  mountains;  for  a 
very  considerable  distance  eastwards  along  the  coast  of  Africa 
they  are  so  lofty  that  they  seem  to  be  above  the  clouds.  In  this 
country  there  is  a  race  of  people  numbering  about  thirty  thousand 
(including  five  or  six  thousand  horsemen)  who  are  warlike,  but 
who,  in  some  respects,  seem  to  observe  part  of  the  Christian 
faith3,  for  they  keep  Sunday  very  strictly,  doing  no  work  on  that 
day,  and  if  any  of  their  enemies  go  among  them  on  a  Sunday 
they  will  welcome  him  and  do  him  no  injury.  Some  of  these 
men  came  to  the  city  of  Qafy  and  spoke  with  Ruy  Fernandez, 

1  Cf.  Leo’s  description  of  the  mountains  of  Demenfera  (op.  at.  book  II, 
p.  246)  and  Hanchisa  (ibid.  p.  256). 

*  Literally  "mountain.” 

9  Leo  refers  to  the  survival  of  certain  Christian  practices  in  his  description 
of  the  people  of  Fez  (op.  at.  book  ill,  p.  452);  cf.  Marmot’s  description  of  a 
tribe  called  Azusrucs  living  on  the  mountains  and  hills  of  Barbary  and 
Numidia  (quoted  in  J.  Harris,  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels ,  vol.  1, 
p.  629).  Le  Clercq  in  his  L’Afrique  Chritienne  tells  us  that  "au  xiv«  sifccle, 
dans  les  villages  des  Ncfzaona,  on  rencontrait  quelques  communautds 
chr Etiennes,  qui  s’itaient  maintenant  depuis  la  conquCte  ”  (vol.  II,  p.  323). 


MOUNT  ATLAS 


59 

who  at  that  time  was  there  as  the  commercial  agent  of  your 
Highness,  and  told  him  their  way  of  life  and  belief,  saying  that 
their  ancestors  were  Christians  and  that  they  possessed  many 
ancient  books  left  by  them  written  in  Latin,  which  they  kept  for 
the  memory  and  honour  of  their  race.  This  and  other  informa¬ 
tion  concerning  the  range  of  the  Clear  Mountains  we  thought 
well  to  set  down  in  this  work ;  we  will  further  add  what  is  said 
by  Pliny  in  the  first  chapter  of  the  fifth  book  of  his  Natural 
History  and  by  Ptolemy1  in  his  work  Be  Situ  Orbis  and  by  other 
authors,  who  stated  that  Mount  Atlas  is  situated  here,  a  single 
mountain  so  high  that  it  overtops  the  clouds,  and  told  many 
fables  concerning  it ;  but  as  the  ancient  writers  did  not  know  of 
this  region  or  explore  it  as  we  have  explored  it,  it  is  no  wonder 
that  they  fell  into  error,  for  a  mountain  of  such  a  shape  is  not 
to  be  found  in  all  that  region,  but  only  the  very  high  mountain- 
range  of  the  Clear  Mountains  which  traverse  a  great  part  of  the 
length  of  Africa,  as  we  have  said  above.  It  seems  therefore  that 
these  must  be  Mount  Atlas,  although  they  are  very  unlike  the 
shape  and  description  of  Mount  Atlas  given  by  the  ancient 
writers.  And  now  we  must  resume  our  description  of  the  places 
and  harbours  along  the  sea-coast. 

Item.  The  Praya  de  Meca  and  Cabo  d’Aguiloo*  lie  ENE  and 
WSW  and  occupy  five  leagues  of  the  route,  and  this  Cabo 
d’Aguiloo  presents  a  massive  front  to  the  sea,  for  it  has  rising 
above  it  a  mountain  reminiscent  of  the  hump  of  a  camel;  the 
cape  falls  to  the  sea  like  the  cliff  of  Cabo  de  Sam  Vincente  and 
behind  its  point  there  is  a  bay.  Half  a  league  inside  the  bay  in 
the  interior  is  the  village  of  Aguiloo  with  about  300  inhabitants; 
it  has  an  abundance  of  good  water  and  orchards,  fruit  and  other 
produce,  and  also  a  fair  amount  of  gold  which  the  Moors  bring 
thither  from  Guinea^.  Small  vessels  up  to  eighty  tons  can  anchor 
in  this  bay,  but  as  the  bottom  is  dirty  they  must  take  soundings. 

1  Pacheco  obviously  intended  to  write  Pomponius  Mela  here  (vide  De  Situ 
Orbis,  book  in,  chap.  1 1). 

1  I.e.  Cape  Agula.  The  “  mountain  "  is  actually  a  range  of  mountains,  some 
2000  ft.  in  elevation,  lying  a  considerable  distance  inland  ( vide  Africa  Pilot, 
Part  I,  p.  162). 

}  Cad  am  os  to  does  not  list  Aguilo  among  the  Moorish  entrepAts  for  the 
Guinea  gold  traffic.  It  was,  however,  close  enough  to  Massat  to  have  shared 
its  trans-Saharan  traffic  in  that  commodity. 


6o 


CAPE  NUN 


Item.  Cabo  d’Aguiloo  and  Cabo  de  Nam1  lie  NE  by  N  and 
SW  by  S  and  occupy  twelve  leagues  of  the  route ;  Cabo  de  Nam 
is  largely  sand  and  is  not  very  high.  In  front  of  it  there  are  two 
islands,  and  two  leagues  inland  is  a  very  large  mud-wall  en¬ 
closure,  five  leagues  in  circumference ;  inside  it  are  four  villages : 
Taguaost,  Haguost,  Hahytemosy  and  Tyciguone2,  containing  in 
all  some  fifteen  hundred  inhabitants,  who  are  usually  at  war  with 
one  another.  Within  this  enclosure  there  is  plenty  of  water  and 
many  gardens  and  orchards,  with  an  abundance  of  fruit.  The 
inhabitants  of  these  villages  are  white,  but  there  are  some  blacks 
among  them.  There  is  a  big  gold  market  here,  for  it  is  the  port 
for  AudemL  Here  “alquices4,”  coarse  handkerchiefs,  and  blue, 
red  and  yellow  cloths  are  much  prized,  likewise  English  cloths, 
linens  and  other  articles.  It  was  from  Cabo  de  Nam  that  the 
virtuous  Prince  Henry  began  his  discoveries.  At  the  beginning 
of  this  navigation  there  was  a  saying:  “He  who  reaches  Cabo 
de  Nam  will  return  or  will  not”  (although  it  is  distant  not  more 
than  200  leagues  from  Lisbon)  and  now — Our  Lord  be  praised — 
the  King  navigates  as  far  as  India,  a  distance  of  4,000  leagues 
from  Portugal.  He  who  wishes  to  sail  from  Cabo  de  Guer  to 
Cabo  de  Nam? . . .  and  the  distance  along  the  route  is  30  leagues6 ; 
by  going  outside  the  bay,  he  will  make  his  way  more  quickly  and 
safely.  This  Cabo  de  Nam  is  30°  20'  north  of  the  equator7. 

1  I.e.  Cape  Nun. 

*  Cf.  Leo  Africanus’s  account:  "In  all  Sus  there  is  no  city  comparable 
unto  that  which  is  commonly  called  Tagauost,  for  it  oontaineth  above  8,000 
households. . .  .The  people  of  Tagauost  are  divided  into  three  parts  [Haguost, 
Hahytemosy  and  Tyciguone?].  They  have  continual  civil  wars  among  them¬ 
selves. .  .their  men  are  of  a  tawny  and  swarthy  colour,  by  reason  they  are 
descended  of  black  fathers  and  white  mothers. . .”  (op.  tit.  book  n,  p.  255). 

1  There  is  no  reference  in  contemporary  literature  to  any  gold  traffic  at 
Tagauost.  The  port  for  Audem  was  Mesas.  {Vide  Cadamosto,  op.  tit.  p.  63.) 

4  A  kind  of  white  Moorish  mantle  or  burnous. 

5  Lacuna. 

*  The  coastwise  distance  between  these  two  capes,  on  Pacheco’s  reckoning, 
is  35  leagues.  In  the  light  of  this  (and  the  statement  that  follows  it)  it  is 
obvious  therefore  that  the  lacuna  originally  contained  directions  for  a  shorter 
route  between  these  points. 

1  Actually  290  20'  N. 


6i 


Chapter  xxii 

How  God  revealed  to  the  virtuous  Prince  Henry  that  he 
should  discover  the  Ethiopias  of  Guinea ,  and  how  his 
discoveries  began  at  this  point. 

It  is  not  reasonable  that  we  should  pass  over  in  silence  those 
things  the  truth  of  which  our  heart  desires  to  tell:  how  the 
virtuous  Prince  Henry,  third  son  of  King  John  I  of  Portugal  of 
glorious  memory,  and  of  Queen  Philip  daughter  of  the  excellent 
prince  Duke  of  Lancaster  of  England,  in  his  youth  took  part 
with  the  King  his  father  in  the  conquest  of  the  city  of  Cepta, 
which  was  entered  by  the  gate  of  Almina  after  a  sharp  battle 
with  the  Moors.  The  Prince  there  showed  a  courage  equalled 
by  no  knight  in  this  battle,  as  we  heard  from  persons  who  were 
present  at  the  capture  of  this  city  and  bore  true  witness  to  this 
fact.  For  this  he  attained  the  high  military  rank  due  to  brave 
men  for  such  deeds1.  Some  years  after  the  capture  of  Cepta, 
after  the  death  of  the  King  his  father,  he  founded  and  built  on 
Cabo  de  Sam  Vincente  (known  of  old  as  the  Sacred  Promontory) 
the  town  of  Ter?a  Naval*,  situated  on  the  bay  of  Sagres*-,  and 
withdrew  there  with  his  household  from  the  woes  and  wickedness 
of  this  world,  and  lived  a  virtuous  and  chaste  life,  without  ever 
knowing  a  woman  or  drinking  wine  or  indulging  in  any  other 
vice.  He  wore  a  hairshirt  continually  next  to  his  skin  and 
practised  many  other  virtuous  acts  besides.  He  was  at  that  time 
Master  of  the  Order  of  Christ  in  these  realms  and  lived  such  a 
good  life  that  we  may  confidently  believe  that  he  was  found 
worthy  of  that  blessedness  which  all  desire  but  few  attain.  We 
might  say  much  more  of  this  Prince  and  of  his  goodness, 

’  I.e.  knighthood. 

*  The  precise  year  in  which  Henry  took  up  his  residence  in  this  town  is  a 
matter  of  dispute.  R.  H.  M^jor  {Prince  Henry  the  Navigator, pp.  51-2)  held  that 
he  did  so  soon  after  his  return  from  Ceuta,  but  if  we  are  to  believe  Zurara 
{Cltronicle  of  Guinea,  chap.  78)  it  would  seem  very  unlikely  that  Henry  with¬ 
drew  thither  until  after  his  return  from  Tangier,  i.e.  after  1437.  Pacheco’s 
statement  tends  to  confirm  this,  for  John  I  only  died  in  1433. 

5  Only  ruins  remain  to  mark  the  site. 


62 


REVELATION  TO  PRINCE  HENRY 


liberality  and  learning,  all  of  which  deserve  high  praise,  but  we 
will  omit  these  things  as  not  pertaining  to  our  subject.  We  will 
only  tell  of  the  cause1  which  moved  him  to  undertake  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  the  Ethiopias  of  Guinea1,  which  is  our  principal  theme. 

Virtuous  men  who  love  God  and  have  clean  hearts  and  hate 
iniquity  are  never  abandoned  by  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit ; 
one  night,  as  the  Prince  lay  in  bed,  it  was  revealed  to  him  that  he 
would  render  a  great  service  to  Our  Lord  by  the  discovery  of  the 
said  Ethiopias,  and  that  in  this  region  a  great  multitude  of  new 
peoples  and  black  men  would  be  found ;  as,  in  fact,  have  been 
discovered  from  that  time  to  our  day;  whose  colour  and  shape 
and  way  of  life  none  who  had  not  seen  them  could  believe; 
and  that  many  of  these  peoples  would  be  saved  by  the  sacrament 
of  Holy  Baptism.  It  was  further  revealed  to  him  that  in  these 
lands  so  much  gold  and  other  rich  merchandise  would  be  found 
as  would  maintain  the  King  and  people  of  these  realms  of 
Portugal  in  plenty  and  would  enable  them  to  wage  war  on  the 
enemies  of  our  holy  Catholic  faith.  This  revelation  and  the 
discovery  of  so  many  great  regions  now  made  known  to 
Christendom  seems  to  be  a  fresh  mystery  of  God  and  no  merely 
temporal  matter;  for  that  must  needs  come  to  pass  which  was 
foretold  by  the  prophet  David  in  the  eighteenth3  psalm  which 
begins  “The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God”  and  contains 
the  verse  “Their  line  is  gone  out  through  all  the  earth,  and  their 
words  to  the  end  of  the  world.”  And  because  the  teaching  of 
Our  Lord,  which  was  preached  by  the  Apostles,  for  the  salvation 
of  the  whole  world,  was  lost  in  these  Ethiopias,  He  in  His 
infinite  mercy  and  goodness  willed  that  it  should  be  restored  by 
us  as  heirs  of  his  law  and  divine  faith.  Thus  in  the  city  of 

1  The  account  of  the  revelation  that  follows  is  also  found  in  Jo5o  de 
Barros’s  Asia,  Decade  I,  book  I,  chap.  i.  Damiao  de  Goes,  a  humanist  of  the 
Renaissance,  refers  to  the  story  ( Cronica  de  Principe  D.  jo&o)  but  rejects  it. 
According  to  him  Henry  desired  to  find  India :  the  accounts  of  Herodotus 
and  other  ancient  writers  convinced  him  that  it  had  been  reached  by  the 
circumnavigation  of  Africa,  and  this,  together  with  the  information  he  had 
obtained  from  natives  well  versed  in  African  affairs,  led  him  to  order  the 
rediscovery  of  the  forgotten  route.  Vide  E.  Prestage,  op.  cit.  pp.  31  </  seq. 
Zurara,  who  wrote  nearer  the  time,  simply  gives  a  list  of  motives  actuating 
Henry  (op.  cit.  chap.  16). 

*  In  contradistinction  to  "the  Ethiopias  of  India”;  vide  book  1,  chap.  23. 

5  Actually  Psalm  xix.  4. 


THE  WORK  OF  THE  NAVIGATOR 


63 

Sam  Jorze  da  Mina  in  the  kingdom  of  Maniconguo*  many 
Ethiopians  have  yielded  a  new  spiritual  fruit  and  in  the  time  of 
the  late  King  John  and  during  your  reign  have  become  Christians 
and  have  hearkened  to  the  Gospel  which  is  spreading  throughout 
the  earth,  so  that  the  words  of  this  psalm  are  being  fulfilled.  We 
must  call  Prince  Henry,  whom  the  glorious  God  chose  for  this 
fulfilment,  most  blessed ;  and  blessed,  indeed,  are  the  Kings  of 
Portugal  his  successors,  who  have  won  such  glory,  riches  and 
honour  from  these  conquests  and  commerce,  with  peace  and 
prosperity,  so  long  as  they  make  use  of  them  with  charity  and 
without  harshness  for  the  service  of  Our  Lord. 

The  Prince  began  this  discovery  for  the  service  of  God  from 
Cabo  de  Nam  and  when  the  first  negroes4  were  brought  to  these 
realms  and  he  learnt  the  truth  of  this  holy  revelation,  he  wrote 
to  all  the  Kings  of  Christendom  inviting  them  to  assist  him  in 
this  discovery  and  conquest  for  the  service  of  Our  Lord,  each 
of  them  to  have  an  equal  share  of  the  profits,  but  they,  con¬ 
sidering  it  to  be  of  no  account,  refused  and  renounced  their 
rights*.  The  Prince  then  sent  to  the  holy  Father,  Pope  Eugene  IV, 


1  John  Pory  (vide  Introduction  to  Leo  Africanus’s  History  of  Africa, 
Hakluyt  Society,  p.  79)  places  it  in  the  kingdom  of  Benin,  the  kingdom  of 
the  Congo  ending  northwards  near  the  “haven  called  Gurte”  (i.e.  Gwato), 
about  30  miles  northnortheast  of  the  mouth  of  the  Benin  River. 

*  According  to  Zurara  (op.  dt.  chap.  31)  Dinis  Dias  brought  the  first 
“negroes”  to  Portugal.  They  were  “  Azenegues  of  Sahara,”  i.e.  blackamoors, 
but  judging  from  passages  in  chaps.  27  and  33  of  book  1,  Pacheco  has  in  mind 
the  negroes  of  the  Senegal,  i.e.  Jalofs.  The  first  of  these  were  brought  to 
Portugal  in  1447-8.  (Vide  Zurara,  op.  cit.  chap.  60.) 

*  This  statement  is  not  confirmed  by  other  Portuguese  historians  and  is, 
moreover,  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  Papal  mandates  (issued  at  the  express 
wish  of  the  Portuguese  kings)  conceding  the  sole  rights  and  advantages  of 
African  navigation  to  the  Portuguese.  The  only  passage  in  Zurara  that  deals 
with  “the  Kings  of  Christendom”  has  an  entirely  different  tenor.  After 
rehearsing  the  virtues  of  the  navigator,  he  asks  "Who  would  not  fear  to 
compare  himself  with  this  our  prince,  seeing  how  that  the  sovereign  pontiff, 
vicar-general  of  the  Holy  Church  (Martin  X)  and  the  Emperor  of  Germany 
(Sigismund)  as  well  as  the  kings  of  Castille  (John  II)  and  England  (Henry  VI) 
when  informed  of  his  great  virtues,  begged  him  to  be  captain  of  their  armies?  ” 
(op.  cit.  chap.  6).  That  still  other  Christian  princes  and  rulers  were  also  aware 
of  the  work  of  the  Portuguese  at  this  period,  and  unlikely  to  despise  any 
request  for  help,  is  evident  from  the  warm  reception  that  Pedro,  the  second 
son  of  John  I  and  brother  of  the  Navigator,  received  on  his  tour  of  Europe. 
At  Venice,  for  instance,  the  Doge  presented  him  with  a  copy  of  Marco  Polo’s 
travels  and  a  “mappa  mundi”  by  which  Prince  Henry  “was  much  helped 


DEATH  OF  PRINCE  HENRY 


64 

Femam  Lopez  de  Azevedo,  a  gentleman  of  his  household  and 
a  councillor  of  King  Afonso  V,  and  Commander  of  the  Order 
of  Christ,  who  presented  to  the  Pontiff  the  embassy  of  the  prince 
and  the  renunciation  of  the  kings,  and  all  his  requests  were 
granted1.  For  even  as  God  revealed  to  the  virtuous  Prince  this 
marvellous  mystery  which  had  been  withheld  from  all  the  other 
generations  of  Christendom,  so  He  willed  that,  by  the  hand  of 
His  vicar,  pastor  and  father  of  the  church,  Pope  Eugene  IV, 
and  by  the  blessings  and  letters  of  other  holy  Popes,  the  conquest 
and  commerce  of  these  regions  even  to  the  ends  of  India  should 
be  granted  and  bestowred  on  him.  With  this  foundation  this 
virtuous  Prince  set  to  work  and  bequeathed  in  perpetuity  to  the 
Order  of  Christ  a  tenth  of  all  profits  and  revenues  accruing  from 
the  islands  of  Madeira  and  the  Azores  and  Santiago,  and  a 
twentieth  of  all  profits  from  Guinea3,  in  payment  and  return  for 
certain  revenues  of  the  Order  which  he  as  its  Master  spent  in 
the  discovery  of  these  lands  and  islands;  and  this  twentieth  part 
could  not  be  refused,  denied  or  in  any  way  withheld  without 
mortal  sin  and  forfeit.  This  virtuous  prince  died  on  the  13  th  of 
November  in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  1460,  and  lies 
buried  in  the  monastery  of  Santa  Maria  da  Vitoria  da  Batalha 
in  the  chapel  of  King  John  his  father. 

And  now  beginning  at  Cabo  de  Nam,  which,  as  it  was  the 
beginning  of  this  discovery,  we  thought  right  to  honour  with 
a  special  kind  of  mention,  we  will  proceed  with  our  purpose  as 
before;  and  because  it  is  fitting  that  such  princes  should  be 
had  in  remembrance,  we  have  placed  here  a  painting  of  his 


and  furthered  in  his  discoveries  ”  (vide  Antonio  GalvSo,  Discoveries  of  the 
World,  p.  66,  Hakluyt  Society).  In  the  light  of  such  evidence  it  would  appear 
highly  improbable  that  all  the  kings  of  Christendom  should  have  considered 
such  an  invitation  to  be  “of  no  account.*’ 

1  Cf.  Zurara  (op.  cit.  chap.  15)  according  to  whom  this  embassy  sought  to 
make  a  partition  between  the  Pope  and  Henry  “of  the  treasures  of  the  Holy 
Church,  for  the  salvation  of  those  souls  who  in  the  toils  of  that  conquest 
should  meet  their  end.’’ 

*  Up  to  the  last  year  or  so  of  his  life  Prince  Henry  paid  the  tithe  of 
the  revenues,  both  of  the  islands  and  Guinea,  to  the  Order  of  Christ.  On 
26  December  1458,  however,  he  signed  a  decree  stipulating  that  the  Order 
should  receive  tribute  of  the  twentieth  of  all  merchandise  from  the  mainland, 
whether  slaves,  gold  or  whatsoever  it  might  be,  and  that  the  remainder  should 
fall  to  whosoever  held  the  dominion,  as  he  then  held  it,  by  royal  prerogative. 


mx. 


Series  II.  Vol.  LXX1X 


HAKLUYT  SOCIETY 


THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC  ON  AN  ITALIAN  CHART  OP  c.  1508 
British  Museum,  ligerion  MS.  2803 


CAPE  BOJADOR  65 

device,  with  his  motto  as  he  used  it,  written  in  the  French 
language1.  Aqui  mapa. 

Item.  Cabo  de  Nam  and  Cabo  do  Bojador  lie  NE  by  E  and 
SW  by  W  and  occupy  sixty  leagues  on  the  route;  but  a  wise 
pilot  will  steer  WSW  for  thirty  leagues  of  this  voyage  and  the 
other  thirty  SW  by  W  and  will  thus  round  Bojador  eight  leagues 
out  at  sea ;  he  should  not  take  any  other  course,  because  Cabo 
do  Bojador  is  most  dangerous,  as  a  reef  of  rock  runs  out  into 
the  sea  more  than  four  or  five  leagues,  on  which  several  ships 
have  already  been  lost  through  ignorance.  This  Cape  is  very  low 
and  covered  with  sand ;  the  bottom  is  so  full  of  shoals  that  when 
you  are  in  ten  fathoms  you  cannot  see  the  land*  because  it  is 
so  low.  The  whole  of  the  coast  from  Cabo  de  Nam  to  Cabo  do 
Bojador  is  low  and  sandy  and  almost  deserted,  and  Cabo  do 
Bojador  is  270  10'  north  of  the  Equator3.  The  knights  of  Prince- 
Henry’s  household,  whom  he  sent  out  as  captains  of  his  ships 
to  discover  this  Cabo  do  Bojador,  and  likewise  the  seamen  who 
accompanied  them,  ought  certainly  to  be  blamed  for  not  daring 
to  pass  beyond  it;  for  during  twelve  years  they  were  sent  out 
yearly4  by  the  Prince  and  when  they  approached  Cabo  do  Bojador 
and  found  shallows  and  only  three  fathoms  of  water  a  league 
from  land,  they  were  so  terrified  by  the  strong  currents5  that 

*  His  motto  “Talent  de  bien  faire”  could  hardly  have  been  more  appro¬ 
priate,  for  in  Prince  Henry’s  time  the  word  “  talent”  conveyed  not  the  idea  of 
“power”  or  “faculty",  but  of  “desire”:  vide  R.  H.  M^jor  (op.  cit.)  for  an 
illustration  of  his  device. 

4  It  is  the  surf  caused  by  the  shoals,  rather  than  the  shoals  themselves,  that 
makes  it  difficult  to  distinguish  the  cape  from  the  offing  (vide  Africa  Pilot, 
Part  1,  p.  169). 

3  Actually  26°  07'  N. 

*  From  a  letter  of  Afonso  (22  October  1443,  vide  Algum  Documentor  do 
Archivo  Nacional. .  .Acerca  das  Navegafoes  e  Conquistas  Portuguezas,  p.  8) 
we  learn  that  Prince  Henry  sent  out  ships  fourteen  times  before  he  got  news 
of  the  land  beyond  Cape  Bojador. 

5  There  is  no  suggestion  in  the  Africa  Pilot  of  dangerous  currents  at  this 
point — “off  C.  Bojador  the  current  pursues  its  steady  course  uninfluenced 
by  any  change  in  the  direction  of  the  wind  and  flows  at  less  than  one  knot  an 
hour,  and  at  4  miles  WNW  of  the  Cape  sets  SW  at  knots  an  hour”  (Part  1, 
p.  43).  There  is,  however,  a  suggestion  that  the  cape  lacks  suitable  anchorage 
and  shelter  from  storm — considerations  that  would  loom  large  in  the  mind  of 
the  Portuguese  pioneer.  “  The  surf  is  exceedingly  heavy  all  along  this  coast. . . 
landing  on  the  south  side  [of  the  cape]  is  always  difficult.”  But  these  conditions 
improve  southwards:  “  from  Cape  Bojador  the  coast. .  .trends  SSE  for  a  few 


HK 


5 


66  GILLIANNES*  EXPEDITION 

none  dared  to  sail  out  to  sea  and  pass  beyond  this  shoal. 
Accordingly  they  returned  to  the  coast  of  Berbery  and  Graada1, 
where  they  cruised  about  to  take  some  prizes  in  order  to  pay 
for  the  expense  of  their  equipment;  but  the  Prince  was  greatly 
displeased  because  they  did  not  pass  beyond  the  cape.  In  his 
desire  to  pass  Cabo  do  Bojador  and  explore  the  coast  beyond  it, 
in  the  year  1434s  he  equipped  a  vessel  [barcha]  and  sent  in  it 
as  captain  a  squire  of  his  household  called  Gilliannes,  to  whom 
he  spoke  as  follows :  “  Gilliannes,  you  know  how  I  brought  you 
up  from  a  boy  and  how  I  trust  you  in  matters  pertaining  to  my 
service;  therefore  I  have  chosen  you  out  from  all  the  rest  to 
command  this  vessel  and  to  discover  and  pass  beyond  Cabo  do 
Bojador,  and  even  if  on  this  voyage  you  do  no  more  than  pass 
beyond  this  cape,  I  will  consider  that  you  have  rendered  a  good 
service.  The  dangers  you  will  encounter  will  not  be  so  great  that 
the  hope  of  the  reward  I  will  give  you  will  not  be  much  greater.” 
The  Prince  added :  “  I  do  not  know  how  you  have  all  imagined 
so  vain  a  thing,  for  if  it  had  the  slightest  foundation  I  would 
not  blame  you  so  much,  but  you  tell  me  only  the  opinions  of 
four  seamen  3  who  make  the  voyage  to  Flanders  and  back  and 
to  other  ports  to  which  they  are  accustomed  to  navigate  and  have 
no  other  experience;  but  do  you  go  and  have  no  fear  and  pass 
beyond  the  cape  and  win  great  honour  and  profit4.”  These 


miles,  thus  forming  a  bay  affording  some  protection  from  northerly  and 
easterly  winds."  Here  "there  is  good  anchorage. .  .on  a  bottom  of  sand  and 
mud.”  ( Africa  Pilot,  pp.  279-81, 8th  edition.)  Now  an  examination  of  the  early 
portolan  charts  (down  to  c.  a.d.  1450)  elicits  the  fact  that  it  was  not  the  cape 
which  constituted  the  southern  limit  of  coastal  knowledge,  but  the  cove  on  its 
southern  side,  from  which  it  follows  that  the  question  of  danger  in  rounding 
the  cape  was  not  regarded  as  a  very  serious  obstacle  to  southward  advance. 
It  may  well  be  that  the  real  reason  why  Cape  Bojador  (literally,  the  bulging 
cape)  earned  the  name  of  "caput  finis  Africe”  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  lies 
in  the  arid  and  inhospitable  character  of  the  coast  beyond  (cf.  Zurara,  op.  cit. 
chap.  8,  p.  31,  Hakluyt  Society). 

1  I.e.  Granada.  At  the  time  of  which  Pacheco  speaks  Granada  was  still  a 
Moslem  kingdom  (as  indeed  it  remained  until  1492)  and  the  whole  of  the 
Barbary  coast  was  under  Moorish  rule.  Together  these  coasts  provided  a 
very  handy  and  lucrative  rendezvous  for  Portuguese  pirates. 

*  In  1433  according  to  the  generally  accepted  chronology  (vide  E.  Prestage, 


op.  cit.  p.  55). 

5  E.  Dias  (op.  cit.)  suspects  a  corruption  of  the  text  here,  but  the  sense  of 


the  copies  is  apparent. 

4  Cf.  Zurara,  op.  cit.  chap.  9. 


DISCOVERY  OF  CAPE  BOJADOR  67 

words  so  impressed  Gilliannes  that  he  forgot  all  his  fears  and 
inspired  by  a  great  desire  to  serve  the  Prince,  he  in  this  year 
1434  sailed  fifty  leagues  beyond  Cabo  do  Bojador x.  On  his  return 
the  Prince  knighted  him  and  rewarded  him  appropriately  and 
with  great  honour  and  possessions  established  him  in  the  town 
of  Lagos,  where  he  lived  many  years.  This  Gilliannes  was  the 
first  to  pass  two  leagues  beyond  Cabo  do  Bojador  and  therefore 
deserves  this  notice. 

Item.  Cabo  do  Bojador  and  Angra*  dos  Ruivos  lie  N  by  E 
and  S  by  W  and  occupy  thirty  leagues  of  the  route.  Whoever 
makes  this  voyage  should  keep  close  to  the  shore  and  sail 
cautiously  so  as  not  to  run  aground ;  but  the  ship  that  is  seven 
leagues  out  at  sea  from  Cabo  do  Bojador  and  sails  S  by  W,  will 
make  the  Angra  dos  Ruivos  and  be  at  safety  a  distance  of  three 
leagues,  a  little  more  or  less  out  at  sea  from  it.  At  Bojador  the 
pilot  will  have  to  stand  out  to  sea  the  aforesaid  seven  leagues 
in  order  to  make  the  voyage  safely.  Now  we  will  resume  the 
routes  and  voyages  from  the  city  of  Lisbon  to  these  parts 
according  to  our  customary  manner  of  navigation. 


Chapter  xxiii 

How  zee  are  accustomed  to  -navigate  to  these  Ethiopias 
of  Guinea  from  the  city  of  Lisbon. 

From  the  province  of  Lusitania  in  the  realms  of  Portugal,  where 
is  situated  the  very  ancient  and  excellent  city  of  Lisbon,  the 
capital  of  our  country,  in  which  I  the  author  Duarte  Pacheco 
was  bom,  by  command  and  permission  of  the  most  serene 
Prince  King  Manuel  our  Lord  (the  first  of  his  name  to  reign  in 
Portugal)  we  are  wont  to  sail  in  his  fleet  and  ships  to  the  Lower 

*  Barros  (op.  at.  Decade  I,  book  I,  chap.  5)  give*  30  leagues  and  implies 
that  these  league*  were  discovered  on  a  second  voyage  in  company  with 
Gongalves  Baldaya  in  the  year  1434,  his  first  voyage  (1433,  according  to 
Barros)  having  resulted  only  in  the  rounding  of  the  cape. 

1  I.e.  Garnet  Bay.  “Ruivos”  can  be  translated  equally  well  as  “mullet,” 
“gurnet”  (whence  garnet)  or  "roach.” 


CABALLO  BAY 


68 

Ethiopias  of  Guinea  and  to  the  Higher,  as  the  most  wealthy 
kingdoms  of  India  arc  called ;  in  this  we  excel  all  other  genera¬ 
tions.  Because  this  work  of  ours  began  at  the  mouth  of  the 
western  strait,  where  Pliny,  Pomponius  Mela  and  other  writers 
began  their  cosmographical  descriptions,  we  are  following  their 
order;  our  route  thence  to  Angra  dos  Ruivos  has  been  almost 
entirely  coastwise,  in  order  to  preserve  continuity  of  treatment. 
By  this  route,  however,  the  journey  to  the  said  parts  is  long  and 
circuitous;  we  must  therefore  describe  the  direct  route  which 
we  are  wont  to  take  in  all  months  of  the  year  from  this  excellent 
city  to  the  Ethiopias,  which  will  be  seen  to  be  much  shorter 
than  following  the  sea-coast  from  the  strait,  as  described  above. 
After  leaving  this  noble  city  of  Lisbon  you  must  steer  SSW 
200  leagues,  when  your  latitude  will  be  28°  north.  Then  sailing 
S  by  W  for  45  leagues  from  Ponta  d’Andia 1  in  the  Isle  of  Forte 
Ventura,  which  is  one  of  the  seven  islands  of  the  Canaries,  you 
will  come  to  Angra  dos  Ruivos  on  the  mainland,  of  which  we 
have  spoken  in  the  preceding  chapter.  This  bay  is  250  north  of 
the  Equator.  Three  leagues  out  at  sea  from  this  bay  there  is  fifty 
fathoms  of  water  with  a  sandy  bottom  and  plentiful  fishing; 
from  this  place  you  will  sail  along  the  coast  in  search  of  Cabo 
Verde,  as  we  will  go  on  to  show. 

Item.  Angra  dos  Ruivos  and  Angra  dos  Cavallos*  lie  NNE 
and  SSW  and  occupy  twelve  leagues;  the  name  of  the  latter  is 
derived  from  the  fact  that  Prince  Henry  sent  thither  as  captains 
Afonso  Gonsalves  Baldaya  and  the  aforesaid  Gilliannes  with 
horsemen  to  capture  some  Moors ;  this  place  is  difficult  to  find 
and  can  only  be  known  from  its  place  on  the  map. 

Item.  Angra  dos  Cavallos  and  the  Rio  do  Ouro  lie  NE  by  N 
and  SW  by  S  and  occupy  twelve  leagues;  this  Rio  do  Ouro  is 
240  north  of  the  Equator.  It  can  be  identified  by  the  three  fairly 
high  sand-hills  on  the  NE,  and  by  the  fact  that  all  the  country 
from  Angra  dos  Ruivos  to  Rio  do  Ouro  along  the  coast  is  fairly 
high  and  flat,  like  a  table;  this  is  called  Terra  Alta — but  the 

1  I.e.  Jandia  Point. 

*  I.e.  Caballo  Bay,  which  was  discovered  in  1436  (1435*  according  to  Barros, 
op.  at.  Decade  I,  book  I,  chap.  5).  Zurara  does  not  mention  Gilliannes  in  this 
connection. 


RIVER  OURO 


69 

Arabs  and  Azenegues1 *  call  it  Hazara3.  Here  at  the  extremity  of 
this  high  land  which  continues  for  nearly  30  leagues,  there  is  a 
narrow  strip  of  low  land  where  the  Rio  do  Ouro  is  situated.  The 
landmarks,  then,  of  the  Rio  do  Ouro  are  its  latitude  of  240  north, 
the  three  hills  of  sand  on  the  NE,  and  further,  its  situation  on 
a  strip  of  lowlying  land  at  the  end  of  the  high  land.  If  when  you 
climb  the  ship’s  mast  and  looking  inland,  you  see  a  kind  of  lake, 
that  is  where  the  Rio  do  Ouro  is.  All  this  coast  from  Cabo  do 
Bojador  to  Rio  do  Ouro  and  for  more  than  a  hundred  leagues 
beyond  is  treeless,  grassless  and  deserted,  except  that  in  a  few 
villages  of  the  interior  twenty  leagues  from  the  sea  dwell  some 
Arabs  and  Azenegues.  On  all  this  coast  there  is  an  infinite 
amount  of  fish.  He  who  wishes  to  enter  this  river  should  steer 
E  by  S  along  the  land  with  the  windward  side  on  his  left,  and 
he  will  find  three  and  a  half  fathoms  and  four  at  high  tide,  and 
the  tide  flows  NE  and  SW ;  but  let  him  beware  of  steering  south 
on  the  right  hand  of  the  entrance  to  this  river,  for  it  is  all  shallow 
here.  When  he  has  ascended  the  river  nearly  a  league  to  an 
island  lying  in  it  3,  he  will  find  good  clean  anchorage  at  three 
and  a  half  fathoms.  This  river  flows  inland  four  or  five  leagues  4 5, 
and  there  is  no  fresh  water  except  in  the  months  of  August  and 
September,  when  there  are  thunder-showers  and  fresh  water  may 
be  found  in  pools.  This  river  was  discovered  by  Afonso  Gonsalves 
Baldaya,  knight  of  the  household  of  Prince  Henry  and  his 
cupbearer,  and  by  Gilliannes,  likewise  his  knight,  who  went 
thither  as  captains  of  his  ships.  In  a  raid  they  captured  six  noble 
Arabs  5,  who  ransomed  themselves  for  ten  black  slaves  and  a 

1  Barros  tells  us  (op.  cit.  Decade  I,  book  I,  chap.  9)  that  these  tribes 
inhabited  the  part  of  the  Sahara  that  bordered  on  “the  negroes  of  Jaloff, 
where  begins  the  region  of  Guinea  ” — i.e.  the  northern  bank  of  the  Senegal. 
Their  language  (vide  Zurara,  op.  cit.  chap.  31)  was  different  from  that  of  the 
Moors — it  was  Berber,  not  Arabic. 

1  This  probably  represents  one  of  the  many  European  attempts  to  reduce 
the  Berber  word  for  “  desert  ”  to  writing.  The  more  usual  forms  are  Zahara, 
Sahar,  Sahara,  Sarra,  Ssahhara. 

5  Herne  Island? 

4  The  River  Ouro  is  merely  a  gulf :  the  illusion  of  a  river  is  produced  by 
the  20-milc-Iong  peninsula  (ending  in  Dumford  Point)  which  forms  the 
western  side  of  the  gulf. 

5  Zurara  (op.  cit.  chap,  io)  speaks  of  their  desire  to  capture  some  natives 
and  of  a  skirmish  with  nineteen  armed  men  in  the  Angra  dos  Cavallos,  but 


CINTRA  BAY 


?0 

little  gold  dust,  and  this  gold  was  the  first  brought  to  the  Prince 
from  those  parts,  and  the  river  was  accordingly  named  Rio 
do  Ouro1. 

Item.  The  Rio  do  Ouro  and  the  Angra  de  Gon^alo  dc  Sintra 2 
lie  N  by  E  and  S  by  W  and  occupy  fourteen  leagues  of  the  route. 
For  a  landmark  there  are  in  the  middle  of  the  bay  and  rising 
above  it  three  hills  of  sand  3.  Seawards  the  land  terminates  in 
a  rocky  cliff  and  the  ship  that  would  cast  anchor  here  should 
first  take  soundings.  The  name  of  this  bay  is  derived  from 
Gon^alo  de  Sintra,  a  captain  of  one  of  the  Prince’s  ships,  who 
was  killed  here  by  the  Arabs4.  He  who  does  not  wish  to  touch 
at  this  bay  or  at  Cabo  das  Barbas  but  is  bound  for  one  of  the 
rivers  of  Guinea  should,  on  leaving  the  Rio  do  Ouro,  make  his 
course  SSE  for  thirty  leagues,  to  avoid  Cabo  das  Barbas,  which 
is  very  dangerous  because  of  its  many  shallows,  as  we  shall  see. 

Item.  Angra  de  Gonsalo  de  Sintra  and  Cabo  das  Barbas  lie 
NE  and  SW  and  occupy  sixteen  leagues.  This  cape  is  very  bad 
and  dangerous,  with  great  reefs  of  rock  which  run  out  into  the 
sea  five  leagues  or  more,  and  which  have  caused  the  loss  of 
shipping  at  times;  the  ship  that  enters  the  bay 5  within  this  cape 
can  only  save  itself  by  steering  WNW  out  to  sea.  This  cape  may 
be  recognised  by  the  two  small  islands  in  front  of  it  and,  on  the 
land  side,  by  its  high  cliffs;  its  distance  north  of  the  Equator 
is  2i£°6.  He  who  leaves  Rio  do  Ouro  for  Arguim  or  for  one  of 


says  that "  Baldaya  went  back  to  Portugal  without  the  captives  he  had  sought  or 
any  certain  knowledge  as  to  whether  the  natives  he  had  met  with  were  Moors 
or  heathen,  or  as  to  what  their  manner  of  life  was.”  It  was  five  years  later,  in 
1441,  and  under  a  different  leader,  one  AntSo  Gonsalves,  that  the  ten  blacka¬ 
moor  slaves  were  brought  back  from  the  River  Ouro  (Zurara,  op.  cit.  chaps.  12, 
13).  It  was  only  on  AntSo  Gonsalves’s  second  voyage  that  the  first  gold  dust 
was  obtained  (Zurara,  op.  cit.  chap.  16). 

1  Pacheco  makes  the  same  mistake  as  Zurara  and  Barros,  for  no  gold  is, 
or  was,  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  gulf.  Such  amounts  as  were  traded  there, 
and  at  Arguim  {vide  infra,  pp.  72-3)  were  brought  by  caravan  from  the  interior 
(cf.  Cadamosto,  op.  cit.  chap.  10). 

2  I.e.  Cintra  Bay. 

3  I.e.  the  Cintra  Hills,  vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  175. 

*  In  1445,  as  the  result  of  an  ill-advised  skirmish  in  which  he  and  a  handful 
of  followers  were  hopelessly  outnumbered  by  some  200  Moors.  Vide  Zurara, 
op.  cit.  chap.  27. 

5  I.e.  St  Cyprian  Bay. 

6  Cape  Barbas  is  220  20'  N. 


CAPE  BRANCO 


71 

the  rivers  of  Guinea  should  make  his  course  SW  for  thirty 
leagues  so  as  to  double  this  Cabo  das  Barbas  and  its  shallows, 
and  then  steer  S  by  W  for  twenty-five  leagues,  when  he  will  be 
opposite  Cabo  Branco,  five  or  six  leagues  in  the  offing  with  the 
said  Cabo  Branco  to  the  E;  his  distance  north  of  the  Equator 
will  be  20°  20'. 

Item.  Cabo  das  Barbas  and  Pedra  da  Gualee*  lie  NNE  and 
SSW  and  occupy  four  leagues  of  the  route ;  this  Pedra  da  Gualee 
is  about  an  arrow’s  flight  in  length  and  was  so  called  from  its 
length  and  its  shape,  resembling  that  of  a  galley,  when  it  was 
discovered  by  Afonso  Baldaya,  knight  of  the  household  of  Prince 
Henry,  and  his  cupbearer.  This  Pedra  da  Gualee  was  discovered 
in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  14361 2.  It  may  be  known 
from  its  shape,  unlike  that  of  any  other  in  all  this  country,  and 
from  the  fact  that  it  has  some  little  islands  of  rock  to  the  south3 ; 
this  Pedra  da  Gualee  and  the  Cabo  do  Carvoeiro4 5  lie  NNE  and 
SSW  and  occupy  ten  leagues  of  the  route. 

Item.  Cabo  do  Carvoeiro  and  Cabo  Branco  lie  NNE  and 
SSW  and  occupy  sixteen  leagues.  Two  leagues  to  this  side  of  the 
cape  is  the  Angra  de  Santa  Maria  5,  with  good  anchorage  and 
room  for  ten  or  twelve  small  vessels  in  eight  and  ten  fathoms. 
For  landmarks  Cabo  Branco  lias  a  white  hill,  on  a  plateau, 
resembling  a  sand  dune,  the  fact  that  the  coast  trends  ESE  here, 
there  being  no  land  visible  to  the  south,  and  its  latitude,  which 
is  200  20'  north6.  Thus  by  its  shape,  the  direction  of  the  coast, 
and  its  latitude  the  cape  may  be  easily  recognised.  Whoever 
leaves  Rio  do  Ouro  for  Cabo  Branco  should  make  the  voyage 
as  indicated  in  the  paragraph  above,  that  is  to  say,  by  way  of 
the  Angra  de  Gon9alo  de  Sintra  and  Cabo  das  Barbas. 

1  I.e.  Pedra  de  Galha  of  the  Africa  Pilot.  "  Seen  from  the  northward,  at 
a  distance  of  about  9  miles,  the  rock  looks  like  a  vessel  under  sail”  {ibid.  p.  176). 

*  Cf.  Zurara,  op.  cit.  chap.  10.  Barros  gives  1435  as  the  year  of  the  dis¬ 
covery. 

J  I.e.  Virginie  Rock. 

4  I.e.  Cape  Corveiro,  2i°47'  N. 

5  West  Bay?  6  20°  46'  N.  actually. 


Chapter  xxiv 

Concerning  the  routes  and  landmarks  from 
Cabo  Branco  to  Cabo  Verde. 

Item.  At  Cabo  Branco  begin  the  shallows  of  Arguim x,  which 
extend  thirty  leagues  in  length  and  twenty  leagues  in  breadth. 
He  who  is  making  for  one  of  the  rivers  of  Guinea  should,  when 
opposite  Cabo  Branco,  steer  S  by  W  for  ten  leagues  and  then 
sail  a  hundred  leagues  S  by  E,  when  he  will  reach  Angra  das 
Almadias2,  which  is  seven  leagues  on  this  side  of  Cabo  Verde ; 
sailing  thence  SW  he  will  reach  the  said  cape.  This  course  is 
necessary  in  order  to  sail  outside  the  shallows  of  Arguim,  which 
are  very  dangerous ;  when  he  is  in  sight  of  Cabo  Branco  he  will 
see  no  land  to  the  S  or  SSE  but  only  to  the  ESE,  which  is  the 
direction  that  the  coast  takes  here. 

Item.  Cabo  Branco  and  the  island  of  Arguim  lie  WNW  and 
ESE  and  occupy  ten  leagues  of  the  route,  and  on  this  part  of  the 
voyage  there  are  some  shallows  of  rock  and  sand  and  consequently 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  run  aground.  On  the  island  of 
Arguing  is  a  castle  which  the  excellent  King  Afonso  V  ordered 
Soeyro  Mendez  d’Evora,  one  of  his  courtiers,  to  build  there 
after  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  the  governorship  of  which 
castle  he  granted  to  him  and  his  sons.  The  Arabs  and  Azenegues4 
. .  .gold. .  .Arguim  for  barter  and  black  slaves  from  Jalofo5  and 

1  I.e.  L£vrier  Bay,  vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  179. 

*  Guet’n’dar,  near  mouth  of  Senegal  River? 

s  Discovered  in  1443  by  Diniz  Dias  and  Nuno  TristSo.  Henry  lost  no 
time  in  fortifying  it.  Protected  by  Cape  Branco,  Arguim  Island  (one  of  three 
in  the  bay)  was  a  convenient  centre  from  which  the  neighbouring  shores  and 
the  mainland  could  be  explored.  Having  first  made  it  the  seat  of  local 
administration,  the  Navigator  next  made  it  the  centre  of  all  his  African  trade. 
The  erection  of  the  fort  and  factor)’  at  Arguim  in  1448  may  be  said  to  mark  the 
beginning  of  a  new  phase  in  Portuguese  maritime  policy.  Henceforth,  in 
addition  to  being  crusaders,  the  Portuguese  became  pioneers  of  trade,  both 
for  its  own  sake  and  as  a  means  to  the  conversion  of  the  negro.  The  island 
is  now  uninhabited,  but  the  remains  of  the  old  fort  can  still  be  seen. 

4  This  lacuna  appears  to  require  only  the  words  "bring”  and  "to”  to 
complete  the  sense. 

5  Cf.  Barros,  Asia,  Decade  r,  book  1,  chap.  9.  Pory  ( Introduction  to  Leo 
Africanus’  History  of  Africa,  p.  83,  Hakluyt  Society)  describes  them  as  being 


ARGUIM 


73 

Mandingua1;  also  tapir  hides  for  shields  and  gum  arabic  and 
other  things;  and  from  Arguim  they  take  back  cheap  red  and 
blue  cloths,  coarse  kerchiefs  and  shawls  which  are  made  in 
Alentejo,  and  other  articles  of  the  same  sort3. 


Chapter  xxv 

Concerning  the  desert  of  Arguim  and  the  places  beyond. 

All  the  country  from  Cabo  do  Bojador  to  Arguim  and  fifty 
leagues  beyond  is  practically  desert,  being  very  thinly  populated 
along  the  sea  and  in  the  interior;  the  reason  is  that  it  is  all  sand 
and  has  very  little  water.  The  width  of  this  desert  is  nearly 
200  leagues,  and  its  length  runs  through  the  whole  of  Africa  for 
900  leagues  or  more  in  an  easterly  direction  till  it  reaches  the 
other  sea  where  the  Ethiopians  dwell  under  Egypt  near  Cabo  de 
Guardafune,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Straits  of  Mequa  on  the 
borders  of  Arabia,  which  straits  join  the  Red  Sea.  Arguim  and 
Cabo  de  Guardafune  are  on  the  same  parallel  of  latitude3, 
namely  240  north,  and  the  country  of  Arguim  and  Guardafune 

“  the  most  northerly  [of  the  negro  peoples]  who  spread  themselves  between 
the  two  foresaid  rivers  [Gambia  and  Senegal]  for  the  space  of  500  leagues 
eastward.”  In  contemporary  maps  the  name  first  appears  (in  the  form  of 
“jafo  ”)  in  the  Genoese  Planisphere  of  144(5)7,  alongside  a  prominent  river 
(the  Senegal?)  of  the  West  African  littoral.  On  the  ethnography  of  this 
region  vide  M.  Delafosse,  The  Negroes  of  Africa,  p.  95. 

1  I.e.  the  kingdom  of  Melli  (or  Mali)  which  was  such  a  popular  subject 
with  the  later  mediseval  map  makers,  c.g.  Catalan  Atlas,  c.  1375.  According 
to  recent  researches  (vide  Charles  de  la  Rondire,  La  Dicouverle  de  TAfrique 
au  Moyen  Age,  vol.  I,  pp.  90  et  seq.)  the  capital  of  the  Mandinga  kingdom  was 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sankarani  near  its  confluence  with  the  Niger, 
i.e.  in  the  vicinity  of  the  gold-bearing  region  of  Bambouk  and  Bour6  (Wan- 
gara?). 

’  For  a  fuller  account  of  the  early  trade  of  Arguim  vide  Cadamosto,  op.  cit. 
chap.  xo. 

5  Pacheco’s  figures  for  the  size  of  the  Sahara  are  more  correct  than  his 
latitudes,  for  Arguim  and  Cape  Guardafui  are  not  on  the  same  parallel  and 
neither  of  them  is  240  N.  (Pacheco  is  obviously  guilty  of  a  lapse  here,  for  in 
chap.  23  he  places  Cape  Blanco  20°  20'  N.  and  in  this  chapter  says  that  it  is 
only  10  leagues  away.)  Arguim  Island  is  approximately  210  N.,  Cape 
Guardafui  X2°  N. 


SAHARAN  COMMERCE 


74 

arc  alike  mostly  desert  and  sand.  In  this  desert  dwell  some 
naked  savages  who  live  on  gazelles,  which  they  net,  and  hares 
and  snakes,  whose  flesh  they  dry  in  the  sun;  the  name  of  the 
desert  is  Hazara1,  and  its  inhabitants  speak  the  language  of  the 
Azenegues  and  follow  the  mistaken  sect  of  Mahomet.  It  is 
marvellous  how  great  Nature  provides  for  all  necessities  of  life 
for  this  desert  of  sand,  which  is  impelled  by  the  force  of  the 
winds,  for  it  has  some  islands  of  rock  with  some  soil,  3  and 
4  leagues  apart,  and  some  others  farther  apart,  which  are  too 
high  to  be  submerged  by  the  sand,  and  these  are  the  landmarks 
and  refuges  for  the  Moors  who. .  .*  across  it,  and  for  the  savage 
people  who  live  there. 

Item.  After  travelling  from  Arguim  thirty  leagues  in  an 
easterly  direction,  you  come  to  a  small  lake  called  Ydamem3 
where  water  is  to  be  found  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  there 
the  Moors  who  go  with  merchandise  from  Arguim  and  other 
parts  stay  and  rest  and  water  their  camels  and  take  in  water  for 
their  journey.  Four  leagues  SE  of  this  lake  is  another  lake  called 
Emsery.  In  this  desert  there  are  some  salt-pits  from  which  very 
much  salt  of  a  fine  quality  is  extracted  in  the  following  manner : 
at  certain  points  they  dig  the  earth  and  at  a  depth  of  a  “  covado4  ” 
they  find  a  vein  like  a  board  a  league  long  or  more,  but  some¬ 
times  less,  and  three  inches  thick.  This  they  cut  in  pieces  six 
“palmosS”  long  and  three  wide,  and  a  large  camel  can  carry 
five  of  these  pieces.  The  salt  is  very  good  and  white ;  I  saw  some 
of  it,  which  had  been  brought  from  Arguim,  in  the  Casa  da  Mina 
at  Lisbon,  the  house  of  the  Guinea  trade.  The  Arabs  take  many 
camels  laden  with  this  salt  from  the  desert  to  the  fair  of  Tam- 
bucutu,  where  they  receive  much  gold  for  it. 

1  Vide  supra,  p.  69  note. 

*  The  slight  lacuna  at  this  point  appears  to  need  only  the  insertion  of  some 
such  words  as  “journey"  or  "make  their  way." 

5  This  lake  and  the  following  one  (Emsery)  are  probably  to  be  identified 
with  the  “salines  "  of  the  Tcgazza  (or  TegMza)  region.  Vide  'Leo  Africanus, 
op.  cit.  book  VI,  pp.  800  et  seq.\  Cadamosto,  op.  cit.  pp.  45  et  seq.  Until 
recently  several  places,  approximately  in  this  locality,  were  carrying  on  a  salt 
trade  with  the  Sudan.  Aruan  and  Tadeni  in  particular  were  doing  a  large 
business  in  that  commodity  down  to  the  end  of  the  last  century.  Vide 
F.  Dubois,  Tombouctou  la  MystMeuse,  p.  385. 

4  A  Portuguese  measure  containing  three-quarters  of  a  yard  of  a  Flemish  ell. 

5  A  “palmo”  equals  one-third  of  a  “covado." 


OADEM  AND  THE  GOLD  TRADE 


75 

Item.  About  forty  leagues  to  the  SE  of  Lake  Ydamem  is  a 
town,  inhabited  by  Azenegues,  called  Audem1 * ;  it  contains  about 
300  inhabitants,  brown  in  colour  and  belonging  to  the  excom¬ 
municated  sect  of  Mahomet.  They  are  called  Ezarziguy.  In  this 
town  of  Audem  there  is  a  great  traffic  in  gold,  which  is  brought 
overland  from  Guinea ;  it  was  even  greater  before  the  mine3  and 
other  rivers  of  Guinea  were  discovered.  The  late  King  John  II 
had  a  certain  Rodrigo  Reined,  his  squire,  there  as  factor,  but 
these  bad  Azenegues  treated  him  so  cruelly  that  he  must  needs 
return  to  Portugal ;  indeed  he  only  escaped  from  them  with  great 
difficulty  and  personal  risk  and  loss.  Fifteen  to  twenty  leagues 
from  Audem  are  three  villages  inhabited  by  Azenegues,  by  name 
Singuyty,  Tynyguuhy  and  Marzy,  in  all  of  which  there  is  traffic 
in  gold  from  Guinea.  All  this  people  is  subject  to  a  race  of 
Arabs  called  Ludea  4 5 ;  they  live  on  dates  and  a  little  wheat  which 
they  sow  in  the  palmwoods,  and  on  the  flesh  of  goats  and  sheep. 
Of  this  country  the  ancient  writers  never  knew  what  we  know 
now,  and  great  would  have  been  their  delight  had  they  known  it. 
Arguim  was  discovered  by  Antam  Gonial vez  5,  a  knight  of  the 
household  of  Prince  Henry,  who  rewarded  him  for  this  sendee 
with  the  governorship  of  the  town  of  Thomar  and  with  the 
habit  of  the  Order  of  Christ. 

1  I.e.  Oadem  (Zurara,  op.  cit.  chap.  76)  or  Hoden  (Cadamosto,  op.  cit. 
pp.  44  et  seq.)  or  Guaden  (Leo,  op.  cit.  book  I,  p.  147).  The  exact  location  of 
this  town  has  never  been  settled.  R.  Brown  (vide  Leo  Africanus,  op.  cit. 
p.  1 16)  is  inclined  to  place  it  on  the  plateau  of  El  Hodh,  due  west  of  Tim¬ 
buktu,  on  which  is  Walata  (or  Oualata) — a  suggestion  that  is  supported  by  a 
statement  of  Leo’s  (op.  cit.  p.  147).  On  the  trade  of  Audem  vide  Cadamosto 
(op.  cit.)  and  A.  Arcin,  Histoire  de  la  Guirtie  frartfaise,  p.  52. 

1  I.e.  S.  Jorze  da  Mina. 

3  In  1487.  Until  then  the  Portuguese  had  confined  their  main  activities 
to  coastwise  exploration  and  trade.  This  “ factory”  was  established  under  the 
authority  of  the  great  Lamtouna  chief,  Soni  Ali.  The  trade  was  conducted 
through  the  entrepOt  of  Arguim. 

4  I.e.  the  Udaya  (or  Oudaia)  tribe  of  Duihessen  Arabs.  Leo  calls  them 
“  the  people  of  Vode  [who]  enjoyeth  that  desert  which  is  situated  between 
Guaden  and  Gualata.  They  bear  rule  over  the  Guadenites  (i.e.  the  people  of 
Audem]  and  of  the  Duke  of  Gualata  they  receive  yearly  tribute  and  their 
number  is  grown  almost  infinite”  (op.  cit.  book  1,  pp.  146  et  seq.). 

5  The  credit  for  this  discovery  is  usually  given  to  Nuno  Tristio,  who 
followed  up  Gon9alvez’s  slave-raiding  expedition  of  1443* 


76 


Chapter  xxvi 

Concerning  the  route  from  Arguim  to  Rio  de  (fanagua1 
and  on  to  Cabo  Verde  along  the  bay. 

In  order  to  avoid  prolixity  and  to  follow  the  course  along  the 
coast  from  Arguim,  we  omit  many  things  concerning  the  desert 
of  Arguim  and  the  mountains  of  Bafoor,  where  men  eat  one 
another3,  and  concerning  other  places  and  things  of  note. 

Item.  The  island  of  Arguim  (and  the  Rio  de  Sam  Joham  3) 
lie  NW  and  SE  and  occupy  seventeen  leagues  of  the  route: 
from  the  Rio  de  Sam  Joham  to  Ponta  Tofia4  is  seven  leagues 5 ; . . . 
and  from  this  Furna  to  Cabo  da  Area4  is  fifteen  leagues,  and 
from  Cabo  da  Area  to  Anterrote4  is  twelve  leagues.  From 
Anterrote  to  the  palms  of  Qanagui6  is  twenty  leagues,  and  these 
palms  are  on  the  windward  of  the  Rio  de  Qanagud  to  the  NE. 
All  this  coast  from  the  Rio  de  Sam  Joham  to  the  palms  lies 

*  I.e.  River  Senegal. 

1  In  the  Middle  Ages  (and  earlier)  the  Sudanese  fringe  of  the  Sahara  was 
inhabited  by  sedentary  folk.  These  were  in  all  probability  negroes  “more  or 
less  mixed  with  Negrillos  and  white  autochthones  of  North  Africa.  Together 
they  formed  a  group,  fairly  disparate  perhaps  in  certain  respects,  which 
Moorish  traditions  generally  designate  by  the  term  Bafur;  from  them, 
doubtless,  have  gone  forth,  by  ramification,  the  Songhoy  or  Songai  towards 
the  east,  the  Serers  towards  the  west  and,  towards  the  centre,  a  great  people 
called  Gangara  by  the  Moors,  Wangara  by  Arab  authors  and  writers  of 
Timbuktu,  and  comprising  in  our  day  as  its  principal  divisions  the  Mandinga, 
properly  speaking,  or  the  Malinki,  the  Bambara  and  the  Jula  ”  (M.  Delafosse, 
The  Negroes  of  Africa,  p.  45).  Pacheco’s  “mountains  of  Bafoor,”  therefore, 
are  obviously  the  Fouta  Djallon  Mountains  (the  “  Albafur  ”  of  Diogo  Gomes, 
vide  E.  Prestage,  op.  cit.  p.  131).  Now  to  the  southeast  of  the  Fouta  Djallon, 
in  the  forest  belt,  there  are  located  many  very  primitive  negro  tribes  who, 
until  very  recently,  were  given  to  cannibalism  (Delafosse,  op.  cit.  pp.  97  et  seq.). 

J  I.e.  St  John  Bay,  between  Thila  peninsula  and  Cape  Timiris ;  it  penetrates 
inland  for  some  17  miles.  There  is  no  river  until  you  come  to  the  Senegal. 

4  The  whole  of  this  stretch  of  coast  is  indented  by  numerous  bights  and 
rocky  points  which  cannot  certainly  be  identified  with  any  of  these  names. 

5  There  is  an  obvious  lacuna  here.  The  “Furna”  referred  to  is  apparently 
Fuma  de  S.  Ana,  which  appears  on  a  number  of  contemporary  maps  between 
Ponta  Tofia  and  Cabo  da  Area,  or  Area  (vide  "  Guinea  Portugalec  ”  portolan 
chart,  c.  1489 — Egcrton  MS.  73  and  Juan  de  la  Cosa  world  map,  1500). 

6  The  position  of  these  palms  is  marked  on  nearly  all  the  portolan  charts 
of  the  period.  On  an  otherwise  barren  stretch  of  coast,  they  provided  an 
admirable  landmark.  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  187. 


SENEGAL  RIVER 


77 

north  and  south,  and  the  country  is  all  covered  with  sand  an’d 
very  low  and  dangerous,  with  many  shallows  of  rock  and  sand 
which  make  navigation  difficult.  This  route  is  out  of  the  course 
for  ships  making  for  Rio  de  Qanagud  and  Cabo  Verde  and  other 
parts  of  Guinea,  for  it  forms  a  very  large  bay  (which  includes 
the  shallows  of  Arguim)  extending  for  over  thirty  leagues.  No 
ship  making  for  the  £anagu£  should  enter  this  bay,  but  from 
Cabo  Branco  should  steer  straight  for  this  river  and  the  other 
parts  beyond  it. 

Item.  A  ship  near  Cabo  Branco  wishing  to  go  to  the  Rio  de 
£anagu&  must  sail  ten  leagues  S  by  W,  to  avoid  the  shallows  of 
Arguim,  then  sail  twenty  leagues  due  south,  and  the  Rio  de 
Managua  will  be  60  leagues  to  the  SW  of  it.  Taking  this  course 
it  will  sail  outside  the  shallows  of  Arguim,  as  we  have  said,  and 
will  anchor  at  the  palms  three  leagues  on  this  side  of  the  said 
river,  which  is  distant  from  the  Equator  150  25'  N1.  The  bar 
and  channel  of  this  river  are  liable  to  change  and  the  entrance 
to  it  is  uncertain ;  we  will  therefore  only  say  that  a  ship  entering 
it  should  take  soundings  at  the  bar,  and  find  that  the  tide  flows 
NYV  and  SE,  contrary  to  the  flow  of  the  tides  in  Spain3.  Above 
the  mouth  of  this  river  to  the  NE  is  a  wood  which  is  called  the 
forest  of  Chalam  3,  and  at  its  mouth  are  shallows  which  run  out 
into  the  sea  a  league  or  more.  In  the  months  of  July,  August, 
September  and  October  this  river  carries  down  much  fresh  water 
from  the  hills,  for  it  is  then  winter  in  this  country  and  there  is 
much  rain 4.  The  pilot  who  would  enter  this  river  should  be 
careful  to  make  for  land  ten  or  twelve  leagues  on  this  side  of  it 
and  if  it  be  night  should  anchor  there  and  proceed  by  day,  for 
this  land  is  very  low  and  difficult  to  recognise  5 ;  its  only  means 
of  recognition  are  the  forest  of  Chalam  and  its  latitude  of 
1 50  25'  north.  From  the  mouth  of  this  river  the  coast  runs  NE 

*  Actually  160  N.  *  VuU  Introduction,  pp.  xxvi,  xxvii. 

3  Sohr  Wood?  (vide  Africa  Pilot ,  Part  I,  p.  188). 

*  There  are  two  seasons  on  the  Senegal  coast :  the  dry  and  the  wet.  The 
dry  season  begins,  according  to  locality,  in  November  or  December  and  lasts 
until  the  end  of  May  or  even  later.  The  peak  rainy  months  are  those  Pacheco 
enumerates.  But  the  rainy  season  is  far  from  being  the  cold  season  or  "  winter 
as  Pacheco  calls  it.  In  fact  September  is  the  hottest  month  on  the  coast  and 
has  a  mean  temperature  of  82°  F.  I 

5  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  190. 


78  WESTERN  BRANCH  OF  NILE 

and  SW  to  Cabo  Verde;  the  natives  call  this  river  Encalhor  and 
the  country  near  it  Managua  and  the  kingdom  Jalofo.  In  our 
time  you  could  buy  ten  or  twelve  negroes  here  for  one  poor 
horse,  but  owing  to  the  abuses  of  this  trade  you  can  now  obtain 
only  six ;  it  was  also  possible  to  barter  a  little  gold  for  kerchiefs 
and  red  cloths  and  other  articles.  At  the  bidding  of  the  virtuous 
Prince  Henry,  Denis  Diaz,  a  knight  of  the  household  of  King 
John  his  father,  and  Lan9arote  de  Freytas,  knights  and  captains 
of  the  prince,  discovered  this  river1;  and  when  this  Rio  de 
Qanagud  was  first  discovered  and  made  known,  the  Prince  stated 
that  it  was  a  branch  of  the  Nile  which  runs  west  through 
Ethiopia,  and  this  was  the  truth.  At  the  time  when  the  bartering 
was  good  four  hundred  slaves  were  obtained  yearly  from  this 
river  (but  sometimes  less  by  half)  in  return  for  horses  and  other 
merchandise. 


Chapter  xxvii 

Concerning  the  source  and  character  of  the  Rio  de 
Qanagud  and  of  the  two  Ethiopias \ 

Since  we  have  spoken  of  this  Rio  de  Qanagud,  it  is  fitting  that 
we  should  say  something  of  the  interior  of  the  country.  First 
we  must  note  that  the  Ethiopians  and  black  men  begin  here^ ; 
and  since  there  are  two  Ethiopias,  it  is  well  to  state  that  this 
first  Ethiopia  is  called  Lower,  or  Low,  Western  Ethiopia,  and  it 
is  well  known  that  none  ever  died  of  pestilence  in  it.  Not  only 
did  it  receive  this  privilege  from  the  Majesty  of  great  Nature, 
but  we  know  by  experience  that  none  of  the  ships’  crew's  making 

1  Zurara  makes  no  mention  of  Lan5arote  de  Freytas  on  this  voyage  (1445). 
On  a  subsequent  voyage  he  speaks  of  a  certain  Alvaro  de  Freytas  who,  along 
with  LanfarotePessanha,  followed  the  coast  down  to  the  Senegal  and  beyond. 
From  the  context  it  is  dear  that  de  Freytas  was  not  present  on  Denis  Diaz’s 
voyage.  Further,  Zurara  nowhere  speaks  of  a  Lanfarote  de  Freytas :  in  view 
of  the  dose  association  of  Lan9arote  Pcssanha  and  Alvaro  de  Freytas,  it  may 
be  that  Pacheco  has  confused  the  two  names. 

*  Vide  Appendix  No.  1. 

s  This  is  substantially  true :  Moors  and  Berbers  inhabit  the  northern  bank, 
the  Jalofs  (i.e.  negroes)  the  southern  bank  of  the  Senegal. 


LOWER  AND  UPPER  ETHIOPIA  79 

this  voyage  die  of  the  plague  in  this  climate,  although  they  may 
have  sailed  from  a  plague-stricken  Lisbon,  and  although  on  this 
voyage  some  have  sickened  and  died,  as  soon  as  they  [i.e.  the 
survivors]  reach  Ethiopia  they  are  immune.  This  first  Ethiopia  ex¬ 
tends  along  the  coast  from  Rio  de  £anagud  to  Cabo  de  Boa  Esper- 
an9a  in  340  30'  south.  The  distance  from  that  river  to  the  cape  is 
1,340  leagues.  This  country  is  also  known  to  us  as  Guinea ;  and  it 
seems  to  us  [i.e.  me]  that  in  this  promontory  of  Boa  Esperan^a  the 
coast  of  Africa  ends,  turning  back  from  this  cape  to  the  mine  of 
(^ofala1 *  and  thence  to  Monsombique  and  Quiloa  and  the  cities  of 
Momba9a,  Melinde,  Patte*,  Lama3,  Haranha4 5  and  Maguadaxo5, 
a  populous  city,  and  many  other  places  along  this  coast  to  Cabo 
de  Guardafune  at  the  entrance  of  the  Arabian  Gulf  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mequa  which  communicates  with  the  Red  Sea.  The 
coast  from  the  Cabo  de  Boa  Esperan9a  to  Cabo  de  Guardafune 
was,  by  ancient  writers,  called  Ethiopia  under  Egypt  and  its 
length  is  1,060  leagues ;  so  that  the  whole  of  Lower  Ethiopia  has 
a  coastline  of  2,400  leagues,  namely  1,340  from  Managua  to  Boa 
Esperanfa  and  1,060  from  there  to  Guardafune,  all  of  which 
have  been  navigated  by  men  of  Portuguese  race,  besides  the 
further  leagues  of  India.  The  inhabitants  of  these  Ethiopias  are 
black,  with  short  curly  hair  like  the  frieze  of  a  cloth. 

Upper  Ethiopia  begins  at  Rio  Indo  beyond  the  great  kingdom 
of  Persia ;  it  was  from  this  river  that  India  derived  its  name.  Its 
sea  coast  extends. .  .leagues;  its  inhabitants  are  black  but  not  so 
black  as  those  of  Lower  Ethiopia,  their  hair  is  smooth  and  long 
like  that  of  white  men. 

Thus  the  first  black  men  are  found  at  the  Rio  de  Qanagud. 
This  river  is  the  beginning  of  the  kingdom  of  Jalofo6,  which 
extends  nearly  a  hundred  leagues  in  length  and  forty  in  breadth ; 
on  the  north  the  Rio  de  Qanagud  divides  it  from  the  Azenegues ; 
on  the  south  it  borders  Mandingua  and  on  the  east  the  kingdom 

1  Vide  supra,  p.  4,  note. 

*  I.e.  Patta  Isle,  z°  S.,  off  the  coast  of  Kenya. 

s  I.e.  Lamu  Isle,  to  the  south  of  Patta. 

*  Text  corrupt:  in  all  probability  it  is  to  be  identified  with  the  Brava  of 
Duarte  Barbosa  (op.  cit.  vol.  1,  chap.  16). 

5  I.e.  Mogadishu,  2$°  N.  in  Italian  Somaliland. 

6  Cf.  Cadamosto,  op.  cit.  p.  74. 


8o 


SOURCE  OF  SENEGAL 


of  Tucurol1 *.  The  coast  of  Jalofo  extends  for  fifty-five  leagues, 
namely  25  leagues  from  Rio  de  £anagud  to  Cabo  Verde  and 
30  leagues  from  Cabo  Verde  to  Rio  de  Guambea,  and  this  river 
divides  Mandingua  from  Jalofo.  The  King  of  Jalofo  can  put 
10,000  horsemen  into  the  field  and  100,000  footmen ;  they  are 
all  naked  except  the  nobles  and  honourable  men,  who  wear  blue 
cotton  shirts  and  drawers  of  the  same  stuff.  These  peoples,  as 
those  of  the  great  kingdom  of  Mandingua  and  of  Tucurol  and 
other  negroes,  are  all  circumcised  and  worship  in  the  false  sect 
of  Mahomet.  They  are  given  to  vice  and  are  rarely  at  peace  with 
one  another,  and  are  very  great  thieves  and  liars,  great  drunkards 
and  very  ungrateful  and  shameless  in  their  perpetual  begging. 

All  these  peoples  and  others  who  dwell  near  them  are  ignorant 
of  the  source  of  the  Rio  de  Qanagud,  which  is  so  large  and  deep 
that  they  call  it  Rio  Negro.  Many  intelligent  Ethiopians  who 
know  different  provinces  and  countries  for  five  hundred  leagues 
up  this  river  have  told  us  that  its  source  is  unknown ;  but  from 
its  course  and  beginnings  we  know  that  it  rises  in  a  great  lake 
of  the  river  Nile  thirty  leagues  long  and  ten  broad,  so  that  it 
seems  that  this  is  the  branch  which  the  Nile  throws  out  through 
Ethiopia  in  a  westerly  direction,  the  other  branch  flowing  north 
and  disemboguing  by  four  mouths  in  the  sea  of  Egypt,  as  we 
have  stated  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  this  book.  At  the  head  of  this 
lake  is  a  kingdom  called  Tambucutu3,  which  has  a  large  city  of 
the  same  name  on  the  edge  of  the  lake.  There  also  is  the  city  of 
Jany3,  inhabited  by  negroes  and  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall. 


1  I.e.  Tacrour  of  Edrisi,  the  Tocoror  of  the  Valscccha  and  other  Catalan 
planispheres. 

*  In  this  part  of  its  course  the  Niger  has  braided  its  channel  and  in  periods 
of  flood  water  inundates  a  very  large  area  of  its  flood  plain.  In  addition  several 
large  permanent  swamps  dot  the  riverine  territory  south  of  Timbuktu  for 
150  miles  to  the  confluence  of  the  Niger  and  the  Bani.  During  the  summer 
floods  it  would  be  no  exaggeration  to  describe  this  area  as  a  great  lake  “  thirty 
leagues  long  and  ten  broad.” 

3  I.e.  Jenn£  (alternatively  Gcnn6,  Genna,  Jinnie),  the  modem  Dicnn£, 
which  is  located  on  a  tributary  of  the  Niger — the  Bani — some  iso  miles 
southsouthwest  of  Timbuktu  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  great  flood 
area,  i.e.  “on  the  edge  of  the  lake.”  Its  importance  was  derived  largely  from 
the  fact  that  it  was  the  outlet  for  the  gold-mining  area  of  Melli  and  of  the 
Bobo  and  Lobi  country.  As  access  to  the  town  was,  in  summer,  only  possible 
by  water,  or  by  a  very  circuitous  land  route  skirting  the  inundated  country. 


TRADE  OF  SENEGAL  COUNTRY 


8l 


where  there  is  great  wealth  of  gold ;  tin  and  copper  are  greatly 
prized  there,  likewise  red  and  blue  cloths  and  salt,  all  except  the 
cloths  being  sold  by  weight;  also  greatly  prized  here  are  cloves, 
pepper  and  saffron,  and  fine  thin  silk  and  sugar.  The  commerce 
of  this  land  is  very  great,  and  in  the  above-mentioned  places 
and  in  Cooro1  as  well,  fairs  are  held ;  every  year  a  million  gold 
ducats  go  from  this  country  to  Tunis,  Tripoli  of  Soria3  and 
Tripoli  of  Berbery  and  to  the  kingdom  of  Boje3  and  Feez  and 
other  parts.  This  Rio  de  £anagud  would  be  navigable  for  small 
vessels  were  it  not  for  a  great  rock  a  little  over  250  leagues  from 
its  mouth  before  one  arrives  at  Tambucutu  and  the  other  towns. 
This  rock  is  called  Feleuu4  and  it  runs  across  the  river  so  that 
no  ship  or  boat  can  pass,  as  the  water  pours  over  it  in  a  cataract. 
The  ships  of  your  Highness  ascend  this  river  only  so  far  as  the 
kingdom  of  Tucurol,  which  the  tide  reaches  sixty  leagues  from 
the  mouth  and  bar  of  the  river5.  There  six  or  seven  slaves  are 
bartered  for  one  horse  of  no  great  value,  and  some  gold  in  return 
for  kerchiefs  and  red  cloths  and  stones  called  “alaquequas,” 
which  we  are  familiar  with  as  stones  that  staunch  blood6.  In 


it  is  not  difficult  to  see  how  the  belief  that  it  was  on  a  lake  and  the  centre  of  a 
gold-producing  region  originated.  Judging  from  the  context  of  a  letter 
written  by  a  certain  Antonio  Malfante  from  Touat  in  the  Sudan  in  1447  Jennd 
must  have  ranked  in  importance  with  Melli  and  Timbuktu.  (Vide  Charles  de  la 
Roncifcre,  Relation  de  Voyage  datie  du  Touat. .  .en  1447 . . . ,  p.  29.)  John  Pory 
(op.  at.  p.  79)  called  "  Genni”  the  chief  city  of  the  country  of  Guinea,  which, 
he  says,  takes  its  name  from  the  city.  According  to  him  it  was  situated  on  the 
Senegal  River. 

1  I.e.  Koro,  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Sankanni  River,  in  the  Ivory  Coast 
uplands. 

1  The  old  Italian  form  of  Syria. 

*  I.e.  the  modem  Bugia  or  Bougie,  now  part  of  Algeria. 

4  I.e.  Felu  Falls,  near  the  modem  town  of  Kayes  some  500  miles  upstream. 
Vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  189  (cf.  John  Pory,  op.  cit.  p.  81). 

5  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  192 :  “  During  the  period  of  low  river,  December 
to  June,  tidal  influence  is  said  to  extend  to  Diould6  Diab£,  238  miles  above 
St.  Louis.” 

‘  I.e.  bloodstone.  Cf.  Richard  Jobson  (Purchas'  Pilgrims,  vol.  tx,  p.  300, 
Maclehose  edition) :  “  they  [i.e.  the  natives  of  the  Gambia  River]  buy  blood¬ 
stones,  long  and  square,  of  the  Portugals,  which  their  women  wear  about 
their  middles,  to  preserve  them  from  bloody  issues. . The  idea  that  red 
stones  will  staunch  the  flow  of  blood  if  laid  upon  the  open  wound  was  still 
cherished  by  the  people  of  Albania  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Vide  J.  G.  Fraser,  The  Magic  Art,  vol.  1,  p.  165. 


HK 


6 


SNAKES  AND  LIZARDS 


82 

this  country  there  are  very  large  snakes1,  twenty  feet  long  and 
more  and  very  thick.  There  are  other  snakes  a  quarter  of  a  league 
long,  with  thickness,  eyes,  mouth  and  teeth  in  proportion ;  there 
are  very  few  of  these  this  size,  but  when  they  reach  the  size 
I  mentioned  their  instinct  is  to  leave  their  native  lakes  and  make 
for  the  sea.  On  their  way  thither  they  work  much  damage,  and 
multitudes  of  birds  fall  upon  them  and  pick  at  their  flesh,  which 
is  of  an  incredible  softness,  and  when  they  reach  the  sea  they 
dissolve  in  the  water.  These  snakes  are  rarely  seen,  once  in  every 
ten  years  or  so,  and  will  seem  incredible  to  those  who  have  not 
our  experience  of  these  things*.  There  are  also  in  this  river  very 
large  lizards,  many  of  them  twenty-two  feet  long,  and  their 
mouths  are  so  large  that  they  can  easily  swallow  a  man*.  Here 
also  there  is  a  wood  called  “balamban”;  its  surface  is  white  but 
inside  it  is  as  black  as  a  buffalo’s  horn  and  as  hard  as  bone; 
many  articles  are  made  from  this  in  this  kingdom,  and  as  a 
powder  in  water  it  is  very  good  for  coughs4.  This  river  is  rife 
with  fever;  the  winter  in  this  land  lasts  from  the  middle  of 
July  to  the  15th  of  October*.  We  will  omit  much  else  concerning 
Rio  de  £anagu£  in  order  to  avoid  prolixity. 

‘  I.e.  Pythons.  Cf.  De  Bry  ( Pur  dun '  Pilgrims,  vol.  vi,  p.  324,  Maclehose 
edition):  "There  was  one  in  my  time  taken  there  [i.e.  Cape  Verde  region]  as 
the  negroes  told  me,  which  was  30  feet  long  and  as  much  as  6  men  could 
carry.”  The  largest  species  of  African  python — Python  sebae — commonly 
attains  a  length  of  20-24  ft.  and  is  native  to  Senegambia.  Vide  F.  Angel, 
Lei  Serpents  de  VAfrique  Occidental  Frarifaise,  pp.  60-1. 

*  Vide  Appendix  No.  2. 

J  I.e.  cro<»diles.  Cf.  Leo  Africanus,  op.  cit.  book  ix,  pp.  950  et  seq. 

4  I.e.  ebony.  The  Encyclopedia  Britamtica  (nth  edition)  in  speaking  of 
the  best  type  of  Indian  ebony  says  that "  the  bark  of  the  tree  is  astringent  and 
mixed  with  pepper  is  used  in  dysentery  by  the  natives  of  India.”  Pliny  in  his 
Natural  History,  book  xxiv,  chap.  52,  informs  us  that  the  root  of  the  ebony 
tree,  when  applied  with  water  and  with  the  addition  of  the  root  of  the  oleander 
in  equal  proportions  and  of  honey,  "is  curative  of  cough.” 

*  Vide  p.  77  note. 


83 


Chapter  xxviii 

Concerning  the  route  from  Rio  de  Managua  to  Cabo  Verde , 
and  the  islands  which  lie  a  hundred  leagues  out  at  sea  from 
this  cape . 

Item.  Rio  de  Qanagud  and  Cabo  Verde  lie  NE  and  SW  and 
occupy  twenty-five  leagues  of  the  route.  The  latitude  of  this 
cape  is  14°  20'  north1.  From  the  point  of  this  cape  a  great  bank 
of  rock  runs  out  into  the  sea  for  half  a  league,  and  a  ship  would 
do  well  not  to  approach  too  close  to  the  front  of  it.  Inside  the 
cape  on  the  SE  are  three  islets*;  one  of  them  is  at  the  mouth 
of  a  large  harbour  which  is  called  Angra  de  Bezeguiche5,  as  is 
shown  in  our  drawing,  which  we  have  painted  from  sight.  Inside 
this  bay  is  anchorage  for  forty  or  fifty  small  vessels  in  five  and 
six  and  up  to  eight  fathoms  on  a  clean  bottom.  Outside  the 
island  of  Palma4  any  number  of  large  ships  can  anchor  at  fifteen 
and  sixteen  fathoms  on  a  sandy  bottom,  half  a  league  from  this 
island  which  will  lie  to  the  N  by  W  of  them :  they  should  be 
firmly  anchored  because  in  August,  September  and  October  in 
this  country  there  are  great  windstorms  accompanied  by 
thunder5,  this  being  the  winter-time.  It  is  possible  to  take  in 
water,  wood  and  meat  here,  but  only  with  the  goodwill  of  the 
natives,  otherwise  the  crews  will  suffer  injury.  Aqui  mapa. 

Having  described  Cabo  Verde  and  how  that,  in  ancient  times, 
it  was  called  the  Promontory  of  the  Hesperides,  we  must  also 
describe  the  islands  which  lie  a  hundred  leagues  out  to  sea  and 

1  Actually  14°  33'  N. 

J  I.e.  Madeleine  Islets.  Actually  they  are  four  in  number. 

i  I.e.  Gor6e  Bay.  Bezeguiche  was  the  name  of  the  lord  of  that  land  with 
whom  Diogo  Gomes  had  dealings  on  his  voyage  of  1456(8?).  He  described 
him  as  "malignant  against  the  Christians” — a  characteristic  that  still  seems 
to  have  been  applicable  in  Pacheco’s  day. 

4  I.e.  Gor6e  Isle. 

5  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  198,  speaks  of  Gor<e  Bay  as  being  "well  sheltered, 
except  during  the  rainy  season,  when  the  tornadoes  which  blow  from  the 
eastward  and  southward  quickly  raise  a  choppy  sea”;  but  these  tornadoes 
are  neither  so  frequent  nor  so  violent  as  those  experienced  farther  to  the 
south. 


6-2 


84 


CAPE  VERDE  ISLANDS 


were,  of  old,  known  as  the  Hcsperides,  as  Pliny  tells  us  in  the 
thirty-first  chapter  of  the  sixth  book  of  his  Natural  History1. 
We  now  call  the  principal  island  of  this  group  the  Isle  of  Sam 
Thiago;  in  all,  there  are  ten  islands  besides  two  large  islets*. 
For  a  clearer  understanding  we  have  given  here  a  painting  of 
these  islands  with  their  shape  and  their  position  in  relation  to 
one  another  and  to  Cabo  Verde. 

Item.  The  Isle  of  Sam  Thiago  and  Cabo  Verde  lie  W  by  N 
and  E  by  S,  and  occupy  a  hundred  leagues  of  the  route ;  since 
our  drawing  is  clear  and  gives  the  winds  and  routes  and  relative 
position  of  these  islands  we  will  not  put  it  in  writing.  We  need 
only  say  that  the  largest  island,  namely  Sam  Thiago,  is  150  20' 
north  of  the  Equator3,  and  the  island  of  Boa  Vista  15°  50'.  The 
islands  of  Sam  Nicolao,  Sant’  Antonio,  Santa  Luzia  and  Sam 
Vincente  are  all  at  160  40'  north ;  as  for  the  islands  of  Foguo  and 
Braba*  and  Mayo  it  is  unnecessary  to  give  their  latitudes.  From 
Sam  Thiago  and  the  other  islands  come  yearly  to  Portugal  many 
skins  of  goats  and  hides  of  cattle  and  many  fats  and  fairly  fine 
cottons.  Fruit  only  grows  in  this  land  if  artificially  watered,  for 
it  only  rains  in  three  months  of  the  year,  August,  September  and 
October.  Owing  to  its  latitude  the  inhabitants  have  two  summer 
solstices  in  the  year:  on  the  22nd  of  April,  when  the  sun  is  in 
the  nth  degree  of  the  sign  of  Taurus3,  with  a  declination  of 
150  12',  and  when  it  is  immediately  above  the  heads  of  the 
inhabitants  of  these  islands,  more  especially  of  Sam  Thiago ;  and 
on  the  3rd  of  August,  when  the  sun  is  in  the  9th  degree  of  the 
sign  of  Leo6,  before  reaching  the  autumn  equinox,  and  is  90° 

*  Cf.  J.  Pory,  Op.  dt.  p.  97.  The  Cape  Verde  Isles  were  certainly  not  known 
in  antiquity.  The  Hesperides  are  most  probably  to  be  identified  either  with 
the  Canaries  or  the  Madeiras. 

1  There  are  four  such  islets. 

1  This  is  the  latitude  of  the  most  northerly  point  in  the  island. 

4  I.e.  Brava. 

5  In  the  technical  sense  of  the  word  the  twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac  are 
geometrical  divisions  of  the  heavens  30°  in  extent,  the  sun  spending  approxi¬ 
mately  30  days  in  each  sign,  i.e.  approximately  1  day  in  each  degree  of  each 
sign  during  the  course  of  the  year.  At  the  moment  of  crossing  the  equator 
(xx  March  according  to  Pacheco's  reckoning,  vide  chap.  9),  the  sun  is  at  the 
first  point  of  Aries.  Thirty-one  days  later,  i.e.  1 1  April,  it  enters  Taurus. 
On  22  April,  therefore,  the  sun  will  be  in  the  nth  degree  of  Taurus,  as 
Pacheco  says. 

‘  Following  Pacheco  the  sun  will  enter  Leo  on  13  July.  It  will  be  in  the 
21st  degree  of  the  sign,  not  the  9th,  on  3  August. 


BEYOND  CAPE  VERDE 


85 

above  the  horizon,  that  is,  immediately  above  the  heads  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Sam  Thiago,  with  a  declination  of  150  12’. 
Although  on  these  days  the  sun’s  rays  are  so  near  them,  they 
bear  it  well.  These  islands  are  unproductive1,  being  close  to  the 
tropic  of  Cancer;  they  have  very  few  trees,  owing  to  the  lack  of 
rain  in  all  but  the  three  aforesaid  months.  The  land  is  elevated, 
rocky  and  difficult  of  access.  These  islands  were  discovered  and 
peopled  at  the  bidding  of  the  virtuous  Prince  Henry*.  And  now 
we  will  return  to  Cabo  Verde  and  describe  the  coast  in  due 
order. 

Item.  From  Cabo  Verde  to  [Porto]  d’Andam  is  six  leagues 
and  this  Porto  d’Andam3  has  red  cliffs.  There  was  formerly 
good  barter  of  slaves  for  horses  here,  ten  slaves  for  one  horse  of 
little  worth,  but  it  is  now  abandoned.  From  Porto  d’Andam  to 
Cabo  dos  Mastos4  is  two  leagues ;  this  cape  has  bare  red  cliffs, 
treeless  and  higher  and  larger  than  those  of  Porto  d’Andam.  In 
the  sea  off  this  cape  in  thirty  to  forty  fathoms  there  is  plentiful 
fishing  of  pargos3,  badejos6  and  other  fish.  From  Cabo  dos 
Mastos  to  Porto  d’AIe  is  two  leagues?;  this  Porto  d’AJe  has  a 
beach  and  a  wood  of  large,  serried  trees  in  a  low  valley  resembling 
a  marsh,  and  these  trees  are  many  more  in  number  than  those 
of  any  other  grove.  In  front  of  this  wood  there  is  anchorage  for 
small  vessels  in  four  fathoms  on  a  clean  bottom  of  gravel  and 
coarse  sand  about  half  a  league  from  land ;  but  a  large  ship  must 
anchor  in  twelve  fathoms  on  a  clean  bottom  of  mud  a  good 
league  from  land.  Small  vessels  anchoring  at  four  fathoms  in 
front  of  this  wood  must,  however,  beware  of  a  rocky  shallow 
located  to  the  windward  of  this  anchorage  towards  the  west;  it 
runs  out  to  sea  nearly  half  a  league  and  is  only  visible  when  the 
water  breaks  on  it.  This  Porto  d’Ale  is  situated  very  close  to  the 
wood.  There  used  to  be  a  very  good  market  for  slaves  at  this 
place,  ten  slaves  could  be  had  for  a  horse,  but  now  owing  to  the 

1  Cf.  J.  Pory,  op.  cit.  p.  98. 

*  On  the  vexed  question  of  the  actual  discovery  of  the  Cape  Verde  Isles, 
t tide  E.  Prestage,  op.  cit.  pp.  141  et  seq. ;  also  S.  Barcellos,  Subsidios  para  a 
historia  de  Cabo  Verde  e  Gitini,  vol.  I,  chap.  x. 

3  I.e.  Red  Cape,  140  38'  N. 

4  I.e.  Cape  Naze,  vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  pp.  201-2. 

5  I.e.  sea-bream,  a  variety  of  gilt-head. 

6  A  species  of  cod. 

7  I.e.  Portudal  Anchorage,  140  27'  N.  Vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  202. 


86 


SALUM  RIVER 


abuses  committed  in  this  barter,  they  will  only  give  six1.  Here 
one  can  buy  much  meat  and  maize  and  beans  and  water,  but 
not  without  the  goodwill  of  the  natives.  This  coast  is  very  low 
and  difficult  to  recognise  and  in  order  to  do  so  one  must  sail 
along  the  shore,  which  is  very  woody.  From  Cabo  Verde  to 
Porto  d’Ale  is  ten  leagues ;  they  lie  E  and  W  and  are  in  the  same 
parallel,  140  20'  north  of  the  equator.  The  depth  of  winter  [sic] 
in  this  country  is  in  the  month  of  August. 

Item.  Porto  d’Ale  and  Rio  dos  Barbaciis*  lie  E  and  W  and 
occupy  five  leagues  of  the  route ;  this  river  has  many  rocks  and 
shallows  running  into  the  sea  for  two  leagues  and  more  to  the 
NW  and  for  a  league  and  a  half  to  the  south,  all  sand.  The 
landmark  of  this  river  is  a  thick  wood  along  the  bank  at  its 
mouth,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  its  shallows ;  he  who  enters 
this  river  should  for  greater  safety  take  soundings  at  its  bar  to 
find  the  deepest  passage,  for  the  channel  changes,  and  entering 
straight  in  the  deepest  part  he  will  find  a  fathom  and  a  half  at 
low  tide — the  tide  running  NW  and  SE,  and  two  fathoms  at  full. 
To  the  north  on  his  left  he  will  see  a  tall  tree  of  great  girth  and 
at  its  foot  are  many  springs  of  fresh  water  where  one  can  take 
in  water  in  abundance;  this  river  may  be  ascended  twenty 
leagues3.  For  a  poor  horse  you  can  receive  here  six  or  seven 
slaves,  but  the  captain  who  is  engaged  in  this  barter  should 
guard  against  these  negroes  for  they  are  bad  people.  The  latitude 
of  this  river  is  140  15'  north  of  the  equator4. 

1  Cf.  Cadamosto,  op.  cit.  pp.  116-17. 

1  I.c.  Salum  River.  It  was  originally  named  after  the  Barbacini,  a  negro 
people  whom  Cadamosto  and  Usodimare  discovered  in  1455. 

5  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  204. 

*  Actually  13*50'  N. 


87 


Chapter  xxix 

Concerning  the  routes  and  landmarks  from  Rio 
dos  Barbaciis  to  Rio  de  Guambea. 

Item.  By  standing  four  leagues  out  to  sea  and  sailing  15 
leagues  SE  from  Rio  dos  Barbaciis,  you  will  come  to  the  mouth 
of  Rio  de  Guambea.  The  country  from  the  Barbaciis  to  the 
Guambea  is  very  low  and  woody,  and  the  sea  has  many  rocks 
and  sand  shallows  and  at  ten  fathoms  one  is  four  leagues  from 
land  and  cannot  see  it  owing  to  its  lowness.  This  country, 
extending  to  the  said  Rio  de  Guambea,  is  called  Gibandor1 ;  it 
has  a  very  large  bay  which  on  the  SE  forms  a  point  running  far 
into  the  sea2.  On  this  point  there  is  a  very  large  palm  forest 
which  covers  two  leagues  or  more,  and  out  at  sea  a  league  from 
this  point  is  a  shallow  of  rock  and  sand  which  is  called  the 
shallow  of  Santa  Maria3,  with  not  more  than  a  fathom  of  water 
over  it ;  it  is  very  dangerous  and  some  ships  have  been  wrecked 
there.  This  river  is  130  5'  north  of  the  equator.  High  tide  flows 
NW  and  SE4.  Half  a  league  to  the  N  of  this  palm  forest  is  the 
mouth  of  the  river  at  the  present  time,  and  he  who  enters  it  must 
sail  E  by  S  and  in  the  deepest  part  he  will  find  two  and  a  half 
fathoms  at  low  tide  and  three  and  a  half  at  full ;  and  it  is  note¬ 
worthy  that  the  tide  flows  with  such  force  in  this  river  that  it 
runs  up  it  180  leagues  and  more5.  150  leagues  from  its  mouth 
is  a  district  called  Cantor6,  where  there  are  four  towns,  the 
principal  of  which  is  called  Sutucoo  and  has  some  four  thousand 
inhabitants ;  the  names  of  the  other  three  are  Jalancoo,  Dobancoo 

1  Jubandor  in  SerrSo  Pimentel.  Arte  Practica  de  navegar,  p.  254  (1681). 
According  to  Richard  Jobson  (Purchas’  Pilgrims,  book  ix,  chap.  13,  para.  1, 
Maclehose  edition),  the  River  Gambia  was  called  by  the  natives  "Gee,  a 
general  name  in  their  language  for  all  rivers  and  waters . . . .**  Gibandor 
probably  signifies  "land  of  rivers.’' 

*  I.e.  Bald  Cape. 

5  It  is  still  called  St  Mary  Shoal,  vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  209. 

4  Vide  Introduction,  pp.  xxvi  et  seq. 

5  According  to  the  Africa  Pilot,  Part  :,  p.  21  r,  the  tidal  influence  extends 
only  as  far  as  Yarbutenda,  250  miles  from  the  mouth. 

6  Cf.  John  Pory,  op.  cit.  p.  81,  and  Diogo  Gomes,  "Die  Handelsverbind- 
ungen  der  Portugiesen  mit  Timbuktu  im  XV.  Jahrhunderte,”  by  F.  Kunst- 
mann  in  the  Abhandlungen  der  III.  Classe  der  K.  Bayerischen  Akademie  der 
Wissenschaften,  VI.  Band,  1850,  p.  27. 


88 


GAMBIA  RIVER 


and  Jamnamsura;  they  are  all  enclosed1  with  wooden  palisades 
and  are  distant  from  the  river  half  a  league,  a  league  and  a  league 
and  a  half.  At  Sutucoo*  is  held  a  great  fair,  to  which  the 
Mandinguas  bring  many  asses ;  these  same  Mandinguas,  when 
the  country  is  at  peace  and  there  are  no  wars,  come  to  our  ships 
(which  at  the  bidding  of  our  prince  visit  these  parts)  and  buy 
common  red,  blue  and  green  cloth,  kerchiefs,  thin  coloured 
silk,  brass  bracelets,  caps,  hats,  the  stones  called  “  alaquequas5  ” 
and  much  more  merchandise,  so  that  in  time  of  peace,  as  we 
have  said,  five  and  six  thousand  doubloons  of  good  gold  are 
brought  thence  to  Portugal.  Sutucoo  and  these  other  towns 
belong  to  the  kingdom  of  Jalofo,  but  being  on  the  frontier  of 
Mandingua  they  speak  the  language  of  Mandingua.  This  Rio 
de  Guambea  divides  the  kingdom  of  Jalofo  from  the  great 
kingdom  of  Mandingua4,  which  in  the  language  [of  the  Man¬ 
dinguas?5]  is  called  “Encalhor,”  as  I  have  said  above;  Rio  de 
Guambea  itself  is  called  in  the  Mandingua  tongue  “Guabuu.” 
When  ascending  the  Guabuu  the  kingdom  of  Jalofo  is  on  the 
N  and  that  of  Mandingua  on  the  S,  extending  nearly  200  leagues 
in  length  and  eighty  in  breadth.  The  king  of  Mandingua  can 
put  into  the  field  twenty  thousand  horsemen,  and  infantry  with¬ 
out  number6  for  they  take  as  many  wives  as  they  choose ;  when 

*  Text  corrupt. 

*  Richard  Jobson’s  “  Setico”  ( vide  Purchas'  Pilgrims,  vol.  ix,  pp.  289  et  seq., 

Maclchosc  edition).  5  I.e.  bloodstones. 

4  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  two  great  empires  divided  the 
supremacy  of  the  western  Sudan,  the  Mandinga  and  the  Songhoy,  the  first 
terminating  the  period  of  its  ascendancy,  the  second  on  the  eve  of  attaining 
it.  The  Mandinga  Empire  exercised  its  influence,  in  some  cases  its  direct 
authority,  over  all  the  countries  comprised  between  the  Sahara  to  the  north, 
the  forest  to  the  south,  the  Atlantic  on  the  west  and  the  meridian  5°  west 'on 
the  east.  The  Songhoy  Empire  was  supreme  eastwards  of  this  meridian. 
Although  decline  was  already  setting  in  upon  the  Mandinga  Empire  in 
Pacheco's  day  it  is  quite  apparent  from  his  references  that  its  power  still 
extended  down  to  the  lower  Gambia.  However,  had  he  written  a  few  years 
later,  he  would  have  had  a  different  story  to  tell,  for  in  1534  the  “  Man&a  ”  of 
Mandinga  sent  to  John  III  of  Portugal  imploring  his  help  against  the  en¬ 
croachments  of  his  eastern  neighbours.  John  replied  by  sending  an  ambas¬ 
sador!  Twelve  years  later  the  Songhoy  army  advanced  to  the  Mandinga 
capital,  the  "Mansa"  barely  escaping  with  his  life. 

5  Lacuna.  The  context  seems  to  require  some  such  words  as  we  have  in¬ 

serted  :  in  chap.  26,  however,  Pacheco  says  that  Rio  de  Canagud  is  called 
"  Encalhor”  in  the  vernacular.  Vide  supra,  p.  78.  .  •  Text  corrupt. 


THE  SILENT  BARTER 


89 

their  king  is  very  old  and  cannot  govern  or  when  he  is  afflicted 
with  a  prolonged  illness,  they  kill  him  and  make  one  of  his 
sons  or  near  relatives  king.  200  leagues  from  this  kingdom  of 
Mandingua  is  a  region  where  there  is  abundance  of  gold ;  it  is 
called  Toom.  The  inhabitants  of  this  region  have  the  faces  and 
teeth  of  dogs  and  tails  like  dogs ;  they  are  black  and  shun  con¬ 
versation,  not  liking  to  see  other  men.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
towns  called  Beetuu,  Banbarranaa  and  Bahaa  go  to  this  country 
of  Toom  to  obtain  gold  in  exchange  for  merchandise  and  slaves 
which  they  take  thither.  Their  mode  of  purchase  is  as  follows : 
he  who  wishes  to  sell  a  slave  or  other  article  goes  to  a  certain 
place  appointed  for  the  purpose  and  ties  the  slave  to  a  tree  and 
makes  a  hole  in  the  ground  as  large  as  he  thinks  fit,  and  then 
goes  some  way  off ;  then  the  Dogface  comes  and  if  he  is  content 
with  the  size  of  the  hole  he  fills  it  with  gold,  and  if  not  he  covers 
up  the  hole  and  makes  another  smaller  one  and  goes  away ;  the 
seller  of  the  slave  then  returns  and  examines  the  hole  made  by 
the  Dogface  and  if  he  is  satisfied  he  goes  away  again,  and  the 
Dogface  returns  and  fills  the  hole  with  gold.  That  is  their  mode 
of  commerce,  both  in  slaves  and  other  merchandise,  and  I  have 
spoken  with  men  who  have  seen  this1.  The  merchants  of 
Mandingua  go  to  the  fairs  of  Beetuu  and  Banbarranaa  and 
Bahaa  to  obtain  gold  from  these  monstrous  folk. 

Returning  now  to  Rio  de  Guambea ;  it  contains  water-horses’ 
larger  than  oxen,  of  every  colour  that  ordinary  horses  have ;  in 
shape  they  are  like  oxen,  with  cloven  feet,  but  in  their  neck,  face, 
hair,  ears  and  flanks  they  are  like  horses;  and  on  their  neck  they 
have  two  small  horns  or  teeth  of  two  span’s  length  and  thick  as 
a  man’s  arm.  They  live  in  the  river,  usually  in  the  shallow  parts 
with  the  water  up  to  their  belly,  but  also  in  the  depths  when 
they  choose ;  they  also  come  ashore  to  graze  and  lie  in  the  sun, 
the  majesty  of  great  Nature  thus  providing  for  them  both  on 
land  and  in  water.  There  are  also  in  this  river  many  large 
lizards*,  some  of  them  twenty-three  and  twenty-four  feet  from 
head  to  tail;  they  live  in  the  water  and  come  ashore  for  pro- 

*  Vide  Appendix  No.  3. 

*  I.e.  the  hippopotamus.  Cf.  J.  Pory,  op.  cit.  p.  74. 

3  I.e.  crocodiles,  vide  supra ,  p.  82  note. 


90  NATIVES  OF  THE  GAMBIA 

pagation,  when  they  lay  eggs  under  the  sand  much  larger  than 
ducks’  eggs  and  when  they  are  hatched  they  are  a  span  in  length 
and  at  once  enter  the  water  and  grow  up  there ;  they  are  dangerous 
and  eat  men  and  oxen  and  cows.  Many  other  things  concerning 
the  Rio  de  Guambea  I  omit  because  I  am  no  friend  of  prolixity, 
although  it  is  no  bad  thing  when  satisfactorily  employed.  The 
people  of  this  country  all  speak  the  language  of  Mandingua  and 
follow  the  sect  of  Mahomet1 ;  they  wear  blue  cotton  shirts  and 
drawers  of  the  same  material.  They  have  many  vices  and  take 
as  many  wives  as  they  like;  lust  is  universal  among  them.  They 
are  very  great  thieves,  drunkards  and  liars  and  are  ungrateful ; 
all  the  badness  of  bad  men  is  in  them. 


Chapter  xxx 

Concerning  the  voyage  and  landmarks  from  Rio  de 
Guambea  to  Cabo  Roxo  and  Rio  Grande. 

Item.  Rio  de  Guambea  and  Cabo  Roxo  lie  N  and  S  and 
occupy  twenty-five  leagues  of  the  route;  half  way  there  is  a  river 
called  Casamansa,  the  people  on  whose  banks  belong  to  Man¬ 
dingua.  Here  are  some  shallows  of  mud,  with  five  or  six 
fathoms,  running  out  two  leagues  into  the  sea,  and  at  the  end 
of  this  mud  there  are  shallows  of  sand  with  twelve  and  fifteen 
fathoms,  extending  for  four  leagues.  In  this  Rio  de  Casamansa 
iron  is  greatly  prized,  and  slaves  are  bartered  for  horses  and 
handkerchiefs  and  red  cloths ;  it  is  120  35'  north  of  the  Equator. 
I  will  not  speak  of  the  channel  of  this  river,  for  it  often  changes ; 
he  who  would  enter  it  must  take  soundings  at  its  bar  to  find  the 
deepest  part.  The  tide  in  this  river  runs  NW  and  SE.  Twelve 
leagues  beyond  Casamansa  is  Cabo  Roxo;  its  landmark  is  a 
reddish  cliff  at  its  extremity3,  and  it  is  120  north  of  the  Equator. 
From  the  Guambea  to  Cabo  Roxo  the  coast  trends  north  and 
south,  as  I  have  said  above;  but  he  who  leaves  Cabo  Verde  for 

1  Cf.  Cadamosto,  op.  cit.  p.  163. 

*  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  x,  p.  228.  Actually  Cabo  Roxo  is  120  20'  N. 


JEB A  RIVER  91 

Cabo  Roxo  must  steer  SSE  in  order  to  make  Cabo  Roxo,  the 
distance  being  fifty-five  leagues. 

Item.  Two  leagues  beyond  Cabo  Roxo  is  Falulo1,  where  rice 
and  meat  are  to  be  had  in  great  abundance;  five  leagues  beyond 
Falulo  is  the  Rio  de  S.  Domingos1,  which  is  subject  greatly  to 
fever.  Beyond  S.  Domingos  is  a  small  river  called  Rio  das 
Ancoras3,  and  a  little  more  than  a  league  beyond  this  is  Rio 
Grande4.  It  is  not  as  large  as  the  rivers  of  Qanagud  and 
Guambea  but  derives  its  name  from  its  large  mouth,  which  is 
seven  or  eight  leagues  wide  and  contains  five  or  six  islands.  He 
who  would  go  to  the  said  Rio  Grande  should  sail  from  Cabo 
Verde  to  Cabo  Roxo  and  from  there  coast  along  the  land  in  order 
to  enter  the  Rio  Grande. 


i 


Chapter  xxxi 


Concerning  the  Rio  Grande. 


Item.  The  Rio  Grande  has  at  its  mouth  five  or  six  islands, 
very  low  and  full  of  woods,  called  the  islands  of  BuamS;  the 
channels  flowing  between  them  are  not  very  narrow,  but  in 
places  they  have  bad  shallows  of  rock  through  which  the  tide 
runs  with  great  force.  These  channels  are  on  the  other  side  from 
the  principal  entrance  of  this  river,  which  is  on  the  NW  and 
which  runs  east  and  west.  The  tidal  waters  flow  in  so  strongly 
that. .  .leagues  above  its  mouth  there  is  a  macareo  where  the 


1  Bolola? — a  large  village  standing  on  the  beach  on  the  west ,°LKa.2£ 
Bay.  The  breakers  off  the  coast  in  this  vicinity  are  still  called  Falulo,  vide 
Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  230. 

J  I.e.  Mansoa  River.  Ancora  Point  and  Ancora  Isles  still  preserve  the  name. 

♦  I.e.  Jeba  River.  .  ..  „ 

J  I.e.  the  Bissagos  Isles,  numbering  thirteen  in  an. 

«  The  name  given  by  the  Portuguese  to  the  violent  flux  “d  reflux  ofthc 
tide  experienced  in  certain  rivers  in  Africa  and  Asia  akin  to  a  tidal  bore 
Cadamosto,  op.  cit.  pp.  178-9;  Diogo  Gomes  (vide  E.  Prestage  op  at. 
p.  132).  The  Africa  Pilot  (Part  1,  p.  233).  while  making  no  reference j  to .  a  udal 
bore,  speaks  of  strong  tidal  streams  in  the  various  channels  of  the  Jcba  Rive 
and  advises  vessels  to  be  on  their  guard. 


1 


92 


JEB A  RIVER 

incoming  tide  raises  the  water  twelve  and  fifteen  fathoms  and 
runs  with  such  violence  that  a  ship  at  anchor  there  could  only 
escape  being  swamped  by  a  miracle.  The  shallows  of  this  Rio 
Grande  run  out  into  the  sea  for  thirty-five  leagues,  and  he  who 
is  this  distance  from  land,  with  the  mouth  of  the  river  to  the 
ENE,  will,  if  he  takes  soundings,  find  sixty  fathoms,  and  the 
plumb-line  will  bring  up  a  very  fine  grey  sand,  which  will 
indicate  to  the  pilot  that  he  is  touching  the  shallows  of  this  river. 
If  the  wind  drops  and  the  tide  begins  to  flow  in  strongly,  when 
he  is  at  twenty-five  fathoms,  that  is,  six  or  seven  leagues  from 
its  mouth,  he  should  immediately  anchor  or  tack  out  to  sea,  if 
the  wind  allows,  for  from  twenty  fathoms  to  the  shore  there  are 
many  reefs  of  rock,  some  of  them  visible  above  water  and  some 
not,  and  the  violent  current  of  the  tide  here  can  throw  any  ship 
upon  these  reefs,  where  it  will  be  lost  as  others  before  it.  On 
reaching  the  channel  of  this  river  he  will  find  a  muddy  bottom 
from  fifteen  fathoms  to  the  shore.  The  whole  of  this  coast  is  very 
low  and  woody  and  difficult  to  recognise1.  The  channel  of  this 
river  at  high  tide  is  eight  or  nine  fathoms  deep,  and  the  tide 
flows  NW  and  SE;  the  latitude  of  the  river  is  ii°  north  of  the 
Equator3,  the  city  of  Calicut  in  India  being  on  the  same  parallel3. 
The  pilot  coasting  along  the  land  or  out  at  sea  who  finds  himself 
at  a  latitude  of  1 1°  will  know  that  he  is  opposite  the  Rio  Grande. 
I  he  inhabitants  of  this  country  are  Guoguliis4  and  Beafares*  and 
are  subjects  of  the  King  of  the  Mandinguas ;  they  are  very  black, 
many  of  them  go  naked,  others  wTear  a  cotton  cloth.  Six  or  seven 
slaves  are  here  bartered  for  one  horse  of  small  value,  and  there 
is  a  little  gold,  which  is  bartered  for  red  cloth  and  the  stones 
called  bloodstones  because  they  staunch  blood.  These  people 
possess  a  great  abundance  of  rice,  maize,  yams6,  hens,  cows  and 
goats.  They  are  Moslems  and  worship  Mahomet  and  are 
circumcised  but  they  know*  neither  shame  nor  the  fear  of  God. 

*  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  245.  *  Approximately  ir"  30'  N. 

1  Actually  :z°  15'  N. 

4  The  Golos  of  Western  Liberia?  {vide  M.  Dclafos.se,  Negroes  of  Africa,  p.  95) . 

5  The  Biafadas  of  Portuguese  Guinea?  (vide  M.  Delafosse,  Negroes  of 
Africa,  p.  95;  cf.  Gulf  of  Biafra). 

“  ^  nharncs  ”  in  the  Portuguese,  the  name  given  to  the  various  species  of 
Dioscorea.  They  are  herbs  or  under-shrubs  with  fleshy  tuberous  roots  which 
arc  used  os  substitutes  for  potatoes  where  they  grow. 


93 


Chapter  xxxii 

Concerning  the  rivers  beyond  Rio  Grande  and  some  of  its 
tributary  rivers  and  also  the  routes  and  landmarks  as  far 
as  Serra  Lyoa. 

From  Rio  Grande  to  Serra  Lyoa  there  are  two  courses;  one  of 
these  is  to  sail  SE  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  inside  the  islands, 
but  few  pilots  know  this  country  and  the  voyage  should  be  made 
by  day,  anchoring  at  night;  the  other  is  outside  the  islands  in 
the  open  sea,  as  we  shall  state.  Within  this  Rio  Grande  is  a  river 
called  Buguubaa1 *  and  the  negroes  along  it  are  Beafares  and 
Guoguliis.  Ten  leagues  beyond  Buguubaa  to  the  SE  along  the 
coast  is  another  river,  by  name  Nanuus3,  the  inhabitants  of  this 
region  bearing  the  same  name ;  six  leagues  farther  on  is  another 
river  called  Rio  dos  Pescadores3  and  five  leagues  farther  on  a 
river  called  Pichel4 5 ;  still  farther  beyond  is  another  called  Nuno5, 
where  there  is  much  ivory.  The  landmark  of  this  river  is  a  small 
islet  at  its  mouth.  Two  leagues  beyond  this  river  is  Cabo  da 
Vcrga6,  fairly  high  and  covered  with  woods.  The  coast  from 
Rio  Grande  to  Cabo  da  Verga  lies  NW  by  N  and  SE  by  S  and 
occupies  thirty-five  leagues.  This  country  is  very  low  and  difficult 
to  recognise;  the  bottom  is  foul  with  great  reefs  of  rock  and  on 
that  account  very  dangerous,  so  that  it  should  only  be  navigated 
by  day,  standing-to  by  night;  for  greater  security  it  should  only 
be  done  in  small  vessels  of  from  25  to  30  tons,  for  a  larger  ship 
will  run  the  risk  of  being  wrecked.  All  the  negroes  of  this 
country  are  idolaters,  and  although  they  are  ignorant  of  the 
law,  they  are  circumcised ;  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are 
neighbours  of  the  Mandinguas  and  other  peoples  who  are 

1  I.c.  Buba  River. 

*  Cassini  River  (?). 

5  Kassat  River  (?) — really  only  an  arm  of  the  sea. 

4  Componi  River  (?). 

5  I.e.  Nunez  River,  the  island  off  its  mouth  is  Gonsalvez  Island. 

4  According  to  the  Africa  Pilot,  Cape  Vcrga  is  20  miles  beyond  Nunez 
River  (Part  1,  p.  251). 


NATIVE  ECONOMY 


94 

Mohammedans.  One  race  of  these  negroes  is  called  the  Ban- 
hauus1 * 3,  another  the  Capes*  and  another  the  Jaalunguas^;  they 
are  numerous  and  have  a  king  whom  they  call  Jaalomansa.  At 
a  place  called  Famenda  a  fair  is  held,  and  here  there  is  much 
traffic  in  gold.  These  Jaalunguas  have  no  coast  towns  and  dwell 
in  the  interior;  there  are  other  negroes  in  this  country  called 
Guoguliis.  In  all  this  country  along  the  coast  there  is  a  certain 
amount  of  gold,  for  which  we  barter  bloodstones,  yellow  and 
green  beads,  tin,  linen,  brass  bracelets,  red  cloth  and  basins  such 
as  barbers  use,  and  we  obtain  many  slaves  here  in  exchange  for 
such  merchandise.  The  houses  in  this  country  are  thatched  huts 
and  the  inhabitants  are  usually  at  war  with  one  another;  they 
possess  elephants,  ounces  and  various  other  animals  and  birds 
of  strange  kinds ;  they  live  on  rice  and  maize  and  other  vegetables, 
and  also  meat  and  fish,  of  which  there  is  an  abundance.  The 
route  beyond  Rio  Grande  of  which  we  have  spoken  above  is 
from  the  mouth  of  that  river  and  its  islands  to  the  SE  along 
the  coast. 

Item.  To  the  W  by  N  of  Cabo  da  Verga  ten  leagues  out  to 
sea  is  a  small  island  called  Alcatrazes4 5,  with  bad  anchorage 
round  it. 

Item.  From  Cabo  da  Verga  to  Cabo  de  Sagres  is  eighteen 
leagues,  and  this  coast  lies  NW  by  N  and  SE  by  S ;  on  its  SE 
side5  this  Cabo  de  Sagres  has  a  large  bay6 7  with  a  good  clean 
anchorage  in  twelve  and  thirteen  fathoms.  In  front  of  this  cape, 
a  league  out  at  sea,  are  two  small  islands  with  an  islet  near  them, 
which  we  call  Ilhas  dos  Idolos?.  The  name  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  negroes  of  this  country,  when  they  go  to  these  islands 
to  sow  their  rice,  take  with  them  the  idols  they  worship ;  when 
this  country  was  discovered  many  of  these  idols  were  found 
there  and  they  received  this  name  of  Ilhas  dos  Idolos.  On  the 

1  The  Banyoun  tribe?  ( vide  M.  Delafosse,  op.  at.  pp.  95-6). 

1  The  Tiapi  tribe?  (vide  M.  DcJafosse,  op.  cit.  pp.  95-6). 

3  The  negroes  of  Fouta-Djallon?  (vide  M.  Delafosse,  op.  cit.  pp.  95-6). 

4  I.e.  Alcatraz  Island  (io°  38'  N.,  150  23'  W.). 

5  Actually  the  bay  is  to  the  north  of  Cabo  de  Sagres  (i.e.  Tumbo  or  Tombo 
Island).  Vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  r,  p.  255. 

6  Sangaria  Bay. 

7  I.e.  the  lies  de  Los.  In  all  there  are  eight  of  them. 


RIVERS  OF  SIERRA  LEONE 


95 

larger  of  these  islands1,  on  the  southern  side  there  is  a  beach 
with  an  excellent  spring  of  fresh  water,  where  at  low  water  ships 
or  their  crews  can  take  in  water;  at  high  tide  the  spring  is 
covered.  There  is  also  plenty  of  wood  here,  and  out  at  sea  near 
these  islands  at  thirty-five  and  forty  fathoms  there  is  good 
fishing.  He  who  goes  to  these  islands  should  guard  against  the 
negroes,  for  they  are  very  bad  people  and  have  arrows  which 
they  poison  with  a  marvellous  herb;  they  have  already  killed 
some  of  our  men  here.  Inland  on  the  mainland  opposite  these 
islands  there  is  a  very  high  mountain  range  which  we  call  the 
Serra  de  Brapam2,  but  the  negroes  give  it  another  name ;  it  has 
a  huge  gap  in  its  centre  which  divides  it  into  two  parts.  This 
range,  Cabo  de  Sagres  and  Ilhas  dos  Idolos  all  lie  in  the  same 
parallel,  90  north  of  the  Equator.  Ships  can  anchor  round  these 
two  Ilhas  dos  Idolos  in  eight  or  nine  fathoms  on  a  good  muddy 
bottom  a  little  over  half  a  league  from  shore. 

Item.  Seven  leagues  beyond  these  Ilhas  dos  Idolos  is  a  river 
called  Cristal3.  At  its  mouth  to  the  SE  are  some  tall  trees  and 
to  the  N  is  a  cliff  of  rock,  close  to  which  is  the  entrance  to  this 
river;  it  has  a  channel  of  three  fathoms  at  high  tide. 

Item.  Four  leagues  beyond  Rio  de  Cristal  is  another  river 
called  Caabite4,  which  has  a  wide  mouth  and  a  dense  grove  of 
trees  above  it  on  the  northern  side.  As  the  channel  of  this  and 
many  other  rivers  of  this  country  is  liable  to  change,  the  deepest 
water  not  always  being  in  the  same  place,  it  is  advisable  to  take 
soundings  at  the  bar  before  entering  the  river.  All  this  country 
is  very  hot  and  is  densely  wooded. 

Item.  Five  leagues  beyond  Caabite  is  a  river  called  Tamara?, 
which  has  a  grove  of  thick,  tall  trees  on  the  northern  side  of  its 
entrance ;  as  the  bar  often  changes  and  the  entrance  is  rendered 
dangerous  by  the  presence  of  many  sandy  shoals,  it  is  important 
that  anyone  entering  the  river  should  take  soundings  at  the  bar. 

Item.  Four  leagues  beyond  Tamara  is  another  river  called 
Case6,  and  a  little  over  a  league  from  its  entrance  is  a  village 

1  I.e.  Tamara  Island. 

*  The  range  of  mountains  terminating  in  Mount  Kakuiima. 

*  I.e.  Manea  River.  4  Morcbaia  River  (?). 

J  Forikaria  River  (?).  *  I.e.  Mellakori  River. 


96  COUNTRY  OF  SIERRA  LEONE 

called  Enquee,  of  some  three  hundred  inhabitants.  At  the  mouth 
of  this  Rio  de  Case  is  an  island1  and  to  the  NW  of  it  there  are 
also  some  very  tall  trees;  shallows  extend  from  its  mouth  into 
the  sea  a  good  league  and  a  half  with,  in  places,  two  and  a  half 
and  three  fathoms  and  at  its  deepest  five  or  six;  the  sea  often 
breaks  on  them.  He  who  would  enter  this  river  should  take 
soundings  at  the  bar,  for  it  is  dangerous  and  difficult  and  ships 
have  sometimes  been  wrecked  here.  All  the  country-  from 
Tamara  to  Case  inland  is  divided  by  many  channels  and  arms 
of  water  connecting  up  one  river  with  another  and  along  these 
small  vessels  can  sail.  The  people  of  this  river  are  called 
Teymenes,  and  here  very  fine  gold  is  obtainable  but  only  m 
small  quantities,  likewise  slaves.  Both  gold  and  slaves  are 
bartered  for  brass  basins  and  brass  bracelets,  bloodstones,  red 
cloth,  linen  and  cotton  cloths;  and  in  this  country  they  make 
beautiful  mats  of  palm-leaf  and  necklaces  of  ivory.  The  coast 
from  Ilhas  dos  Idolos  to  Case  lies  WNW  and  ESE  and  occupies 
twelve  leagues  of  the  route. 

Item  Six  leagues  beyond  the  Rio  de  Case  are  some  red  clins 
which  adjoin  the  sea1  and  the  beautiful  Serra  Lyoa  and  they 
extend  for  three  leagues  or  more;  all  this  coast  from  Cabo  Verde 
to  Serra  Lyoa,  a  distance  of  nearly  200  leagues,  is  thickly 
populated,  low-lying,  well-wooded  and  difficult  to  discern.  Near 
these  red  cliffs,  where  they  adjoin  Serra  Lyoa,  is  a  river  called 
Bintonbo3,  from  which  shallows  of  sand  extend  a  league  or  more 
into  the  sea  and  at  low  tide  many  islets  of  sand  appear  above  the 
water.  Two  leagues  above  the  mouth  of  the  said  Rio  dc  Bintonbo 
is  a  village  called  Tanguarim,  of  about  200  inhabitants;  three 
leagues  farther  up  the  most  serene  King  John  II  ordered  a 
fortress  to  be  built,  and  later  for  certain  reasons  he  ordered  it  to 
be  pulled  down.  All  the  negroes  from  Rio  Grande  to  Serra  Lyoa 
are  idolaters  and  are  circumcised  without  knowing  why,  except 
that  some  say  that  it  is  done  for  cleanliness,  while  others  say  that 
they  would  not  be  able  to  beget  children  if  they  were  un- 


1  I.e.  Tanna  Island  {vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  264). 

*  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  268.  .  ,  OM 

J  I.e.  Sierra  Leone  River,  which,  in  reality,  is  only  an  arm  of  the  sea 
receives  the  waters  of  several  streams,  the  principal  being  the  Rokel. 


that 


NATIVES  OF  SIERRA  LEONE 


97 

circumcised  and  others  say  that  it  was  the  custom  of  their 
fathers x ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  chief  reason  why  they  fall 
into  this  error  is  that  the  Jalofos,  Mandinguas  and  Tucuroees 
are  Mohammedans  and  are  circumcised  by  their  law,  and  the 
Beafares  beyond  them  in  the  same  way,  and  as  they  are  neigh¬ 
bours  of  the  inhabitants  of  Serra  Lyoa  they  have  taken  this 
custom  of  circumcision  from  one  another.  As  we  always  make 
our  voyage  from  the  Ilhas  dos  Idolos  to  the  said  Serra  along  the 
coast  we  will  now  give  their  position  with  regard  to  one  another. 

Item.  Ilhas  dos  Idolos  and  the  extremity  of  Serra  Lyoa 
called  Cabo  Ledoa  lie  NW  and  SE  and  occupy  eighteen  leagues 
of  the  route ;  all  the  inhabitants  along  this  coast  between  these 
islands  and  the  said  Serra  are  called  Teymenes;  they  call  gold 
“tebongo”  and  water  “mancha”  and  rice  “maaloo.” 


Chapter  xxxiii 

Concerning  Serra  Lyoa  and  how  the  virtuous  Prince 
Henry's  discoveries  began  at  Cabo  de  Nam  and  ended  there. 

Following  the  plan  of  this  work,  we  must  tell  of  the  character  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Serra  Lyoa  and  of  their  way  of  living.  The 
greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  land  are  called  Boulooes3, 
a  very  warlike  people  and  rarely  at  peace ;  they  call  gold  ‘  ‘  emloan  ” 
and  water  “men.”  Sometimes  these  negroes  eat  one  another, 
but  this  is  less  usual  here  than  in  other  parts  of  Ethiopia ;  they 
are  all  idolaters  and  sorcerers  and  are  ruled  by  witchcraft, 

x  Text  corrupt. 

*  Literally  “Joyous  Cape  ” ;  it  was  so  named  by  Pedro  de  Sintra  “  on  account 
of  the  beauty  and  verdure  of  the  country  ”  (vide  Cadamostorop.  cit.  pp.  1 87-8). 

s  The  Bulom  tribe  of  the  Sierra  Leone  littoral,  one  of  the  many  backward 
and  half-savage  tribes  who  have  been  driven  to  the  shores  of  die  Atlantic 
Ocean  by  the  Mandinga  and  Fulani  migrations.  Their  numbers,  in  common 
with  all  the  coastal  negro  tribes,  have  been  decimated  by  slave-raiding  ( vide 
M.  Dclafosse,  op.  cit.  p.  95).  According  to  Villaut  de  Bellefond  ( Relation  des 
C6tes  d’Afriqiu  appeUes  Guinie,  chap.  4)  the  whole  country  of  Sierra  Leone 
was  called  Boulom  by  the  Moors. 


HK 


7 


NATIVE  TRADE  AND  HABITS 


98 

placing1  implicit  faith  in  oracles  and  omens.  In  this  country 
there  is  gold  in  small  quantity,  which  the  Boulooes  barter  for 
salt.  They  take  the  salt  to  a  place  called  Coya3,  whence  the  gold 
comes  ;  it  is  very  fine,  of  nearly  twenty-three  carats.  We  obtain 
it  in  exchange  for  brass  bracelets  and  basins  of  the  size  barbers 
use,  linen,  red  cloth,  bloodstones,  cotton  cloths  and  other 
articles.  The  teeth  of  these  negroes  are  filed  and  sharp  as  those 
of  a  dog3.  In  this  land  they  make  ivory  necklaces  more  delicately 
carved  than  in  any  other  country,  also  very  fine  and  beautiful 
mats  of  palm-leaf  which  they  call  “  bicas.”  In  this  country  are 
many  elephants  and  ounces  and  many  other  animals  such  as  are 
not  to  be  found  in  Spain  nor  in  any  other  country  of  Europe. 
Here,  as  well,  are  wild  men,  whom  the  ancients  called  satyrs4. 
They  are  covered  with  hairs  almost  as  coarse  as  the  bristles  of 
a  pig;  they  seem  human  and  lie  with  their  wives  after  our 
fashion,  but  instead  of  speaking  they  shout  when  they  are  hurt. 
As  they  dwell  in  the  fastnesses  of  this  Serra  they  can  rarely  be 
captured  except  when  very  young.  I  omit  many  other  things 
concerning  them  in  order  to  avoid  prolixity.  All  the  negroes  of 
this  country  are  naked  or  wear  loin-cloths  of  cotton ;  there  are 
no  stone  buildings  in  this  Serra,  the  dwelling  places  being  simply 
thatched  huts.  Twelve  or  fifteen  leagues  from  the  sea  inland  is 
a  race  of  men  called  Sousos* ;  they  possess  much  iron,  which 
they  bring  to  Serra  Lyoa  and  other  parts  and  make  a  good  profit. 
Many  believe  that  Serra  Lyoa  is  so-called  because  there  are  lions 
here,  but  this  is  not  so,  for  Pero  de  Sintra,  a  knight  of  Prince 
Henry’s  household,  who  discovered  Serra  Lyoa  at  the  prince’s 

*  Text  corrupt.  *  Cayor  (?),  Gao  (?):  cf.  book  n,  chap.  2. 

J  The  practice  of  filing  the  teeth  is  still  widespread  among  the  negro 
peoples  of  Central  Africa  {vide  J.  H.  Weeks,  Among  Congo  Cannibals,  p.  141). 

*  These  people  would  appear  to  be  identical  with  "the  savage  people”  of 
Hanno’s  Southern  Horn.  They  were  covered  with  hair  and  when  pursued 
defended  themselves  with  stones.  The  interpreters  called  them  "gorillas” 
{vide  Periplxis,  chap.  18).  While  it  is  disputable  whether  they  were  a  primitive 
race  of  human  beings,  or,  as  seems  more  likely,  a  species  of  the  primates, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  they  were  not  gorillas,  for  these  powerful 
apes  are  not  found  in  Sierra  Leone,  they  are  native  only  to  the  Congo- 
Cameroons  region  of  West  Africa.  Warmington  {Ancient  Explorers,  p.  51)  is 
inclined  to  identify  them  with  chimpanzees — "  a  tailless  tribe,  and  eminently 
anthropoid.” 

*  Vide  book  II,  chap.  5,  p.  120  note. 


COAST  OF  SIERRA  LEONE 


99 

bidding,  seeing  that  it  was  a  wild,  rough  country,  called  it  the 
Lioness,  and  there  was  no  other  reason;  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  of  this,  for  he  told  me  so  himself1. 

Item.  Serra  Lyoa  has  a  point  called  Cabo  Ledo,  where 
there  is  a  shoal  of  rock,  a  good  gunshot  or  more  from  the  shore, 
which  rises  one. .  .*  or  more  above  the  water;  between  this  shoal 
and  the  land  there  is  a  channel  with  seven  or  eight  fathoms  of 
water.  Hard  by  this  shoal  there  are  four  fathoms  of  water  and 
any  ship  can  sail  up  this  channel  without  danger.  If  when  you 
are  in  front  of  Cabo  Ledo  you  steer  inland  ENE  a  league  along 
the  coast,  you  will  discover  a  bay  with  reddish  sand3.  Here  there 
is  a  very  tall  large  tree  and  close  at  hand  a  stream  of  excellent 
fresh  water.  To  the  right  there  is  a  bay  which  has  a  creek  with 
black  sand ;  here  is  a  good  flat  beach  with  room  for  fifteen  or 
twenty  ships  to  be  repaired.  In  all  this  Serra  there  is  much 
fish,  rice,  maize,  hens,  capons,  and  a  few  cows  and  other  cattle ; 
but  whoever  comes  here  must  guard  against  the  negroes,  for  they 
are  very  bad  people  and  shoot  with  poisoned  arrows.  Serra  Lyoa 
is  8°  north  of  the  Equator4;  these  degrees  are  the  number  of 
degrees  the  Arctic  Pole  is  above  the  horizon.  As  there  is  a  more 
direct  route  from  Cabo  Verde  to  this  Serra,  by  the  open  sea,  we 
will  describe  it  here. 

Item.  He  who  leaves  Cabo  Verde  for  Serra  Lyoa  must  sail 
south  eighty  leagues ;  he  will  then  be  opposite  the  shallows  of 
Rio  Grande  and  n°  north  of  the  Equator,  and  the  mouth  of 
Rio  Grande  will  be  to  the  ENE  35  leagues  off;  here  he  will  find 
depths  of  from  50  to  60  fathoms  and  a  bottom  of  a  very  fine 
ash-coloured  sand.  From  here  he  must  sail  ESE  120  leagues 
when  he  will  arrive  at  Serra  Lyoa.  Twenty  leagues  before 
reaching  it,  the  soundings  reveal  red  coarse  sand  mixed  with 
small  pebbles,  the  bottom  of  the  sea  all  round  the  Serra  being 
of  this  kind ;  there  is  good  fishing  of  sea-bream  here.  The  pilot 

1  Cadamosto,  who  relates  Pedro  de  Sintra’s  expeditions,  says  that  the 
mountain  was  called  Sierra  Leone  "on  account  of  the  thunder  which  was 
constantly  heard  on  its  cloud-capped  summit"  (op.  cit.  p.  188). 

*  Lacuna.  Judging  by  the  description  of  this  locality  in  the  Africa  Pilot 
(Part  1,  p.  269)  the  sense  of  the  original  is  restored  by  the  insertion  of  the 
word  "  covado  ”  (i.e.  three-quarters  of  a  yard). 

5  I.e.  Cockerill  Bay.  4  Actually  8°  30'  N. 

7-2 


IOO 


DISCOVERY  OF  MADEIRA 

who  goes  to  this  country  should  have  a  stout  sail  on  his  ship, 
since  there  are  frequently  heavy  thunderstorms  here,  accom¬ 
panied  by  very  strong  winds1 ;  the  best  course  is  to  furl  sail  till 
the  storm  passes.  In  this  country  there  are  large  canoes  made 
from  a  single  tree,  many  of  which  carry  fifty  men;  they  use 
them  for  war  and  other  purposes.  The  country  is  full  of  woods 
which  extend  for  nearly  a  thousand  leagues  along  the  coast ;  it 
is  also  very  hot  all  the  year  round*,  and  in  this  connection  we 
may  note  that  Alfragano  states  that  winter  and  summer  with  the 
Ethiopians  are  of  the  same  character3.  At  this  point  the  dis¬ 
coveries  undertaken  by  the  virtuous  Prince  Henry  came  to 
an  end. 

Many  are  the  benefits  conferred  upon  this  realm  of  Portugal 
by  the  virtuous  Prince  Henry,  for  in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  1420 
he  discovered  the  island  of  Madeira4  and  ordered  it  to  be 
peopled,  and  he  sent  to  Sicily  for  sugar-canes  and  planted  them 
in  Madeira,  and  for  skilled  men  to  teach  the  Portuguese  how  to 
make  sugar5,  as  a  result  of  which  this  island  now  yields  thirty 
thousand  gold  crusados6  to  the  Order  of  Christ.  Further,  he 
sent  to  Majorca  for  Master  Jacome?,  a  skilled  maker  of  charts— it 
was  in  this  island  that  these  charts  were  first  made— and  by 

1  Cf.  W.  G.  Kendrew,  Climates  of  the  Continents,  p.  37- 

*  Only  4°  F.  separate  the  coolest  and  the  hottest  months ;  79  F.  (August 
and  September),  83°  F.  (February  and  March). 

1  Rudimenta  Astronomica,  chap.  6,  edited  by  J.  Hispalensis,  1546. 

«  Pacheco  is  wrong  here,  for  several  Catalan  and  Italian  maps  of  the 
fourteenth  century  (e.g.  Catalan  Atlas,  1375.  Pizzigani  portolan  chart,  1367) 
portray  it,  and  the  author  of  the  fourteenth-century  Libro  del  Conosctmiento 
de  todos  lot  reynos  y  tierras  refers  to  it  {vide  Hakluyt  Society  edition  entitled 
Book  of  the  Knowledge...,  p.  29).  Moreover  Pacheco  is  almost  alone  in 
attributing  its  discovery  to  the  Portuguese.  Antonio  GalvSo  {Discoveries  of 
the  World,  p.  58)  and  others  after  him  maintained  that  an  Englishman  by  the 
name  of  Machin  “was  driven  by  a  tempest  to  that  island  ”  in  1344,  but  their 
view  is  not  very  well  supported  at  the  present  time.  Zurara,  who  is  usually 
explicit,  merely  writes  “of  how  the  island  of  Madeira  was  peopled”  by  the 
Zarco  expedition  of  1420  (op.  at.  chap.  83).  The  official  documents  relating 
to  the  expedition  {vide  Alguns  Documentos. p.  7)  speak  of  Zarco  and  his 
colleagues  simply  as  colonisers;  this  concurs  with  Diogo  Gomes’s  statement 
(vide  E.  Prestage,  op.  at.  p.  38)  and  may  be  taken  as  a  fairly  conclusive 
argument  for  the  discovery  of  the  island  prior  to  1420. 

5  Cf.  Barros,  Asia,  Decade  I,  book  i,  chap.  3* 

*  The  value  of  the  crusado  was  originally  325  reis,  vide  Prologue,  book  II. 

7  According  to  a  recent  Portuguese  investigation  (Gon9alo  de  Reparaz, 

Mestre  jacome  de  Malhorca),  Jacome  is  to  be  identified  with  Jahuda  Cresques, 
son  of  Abraham  Cresques,  author  of  the  Catalan  Atlas  of  1375  which  is  the 
earliest  surviving  example  of  Catalan  cartography.  (The  A.  Dulcerto  portolan 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  PRINCE  HENRY 


101 


many  gifts  and  favours  brought  him  to  these  realms,  where  he 
taught  his  skill  to  men  who  in  turn  taught  men  who  are  alive 
at  the  present  time.  Further,  he  ordered  the  peopling  of  the 
islands  of  the  Azores1,  which  of  old  were  called  Guorguonas*. 
All  this  and  many  other  good  things,  which  I  need  not  relate, 
were  done  by  this  virtuous  prince,  besides  discovering  Guinea 
as  far  as  Serra  Lyoa.  For  greater  clearness  we  have  placed  here 
a  painting  of  Serra  Lyoa,  made  on  the  spot ;  and  here  ends  the 
first  book.  We  must  therefore  pray  God  for  his  soul;  he  died 
on  the  13th  of  November  in  the  year  1460  and  is  buried  in  the 
monastery  of  Santa  Maria  da  Vitoria  da  Batalha,  in  the  chapel 
of  King  John  his  father.  The  benefits  conferred  on  Portugal  by 
the  virtuous  Prince  Henry  are  such  that  its  kings  and  people 
are  greatly  indebted  to  him,  for  in  the  country  which  he  dis¬ 
covered  a  great  part  of  the  Portuguese  people  now  earn  their 
livelihood  and  the  Kings  of  Portugal  derive  great  profit  from 
this  commerce ;  for,  from  the  Rio  de  Qanagud  on  the  frontier  of 
the  kingdom  of  Jalofo,  where  are  the  first  negroes  (as  we  have 
stated  at  the  end  of  the  27th  chapter  of  this  book)  to  Serra  Lyoa 
inclusive,  when  the  trade  of  this  country  was  well  ordered,  it 
yielded  yearly  3,500  slaves  and  more,  many  tusks  of  ivory,  gold, 
fine  cotton  cloths  and  much  other  merchandise.  Therefore  we 
must  pray  God  for  the  soul  of  Prince  Henry,  for  his  discovery 
of  this  land  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  other  Guinea  beyond 
Serra  Lyoa  and  to  the  discovery  of  India,  whose  commerce 
brings  us  an  abundance  of  wealth.  Aqui  mapa. 

chart  of  1339  which  professes  to  have  been  made  “in  civitate  maioricarum ” 
is  largely  a  copy  of  the  Genoese  chart  of  A.  Dalorto  of  1325.)  Now  while  it  is 
clearly  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  this  map  was  the  first  of  that  provenance 
— its  wealth  of  accurate  description  and  its  technique  point  to  its  being  the 
work  of  an  experienced  cartographer — yet  there  is  no  conclusive  evidence 
for  holding  Majorca,  or  any  of  the  Balearic  Isles,  to  be  the  birth-place  of  the 
portolan  chart.  Indeed  the  oldest  extant  portolan  charts  all  derive  from 
various  parts  of  Italy  (e.g.  the  Pisan  chart  c.  a.d.  1300,  the  Carignano  chart 
c.  1300,  and  the  Vesconte  maps  of  c.  1311-21).  It  needs  to  be  borne  in  mind 
none  the  less  that  these  early  maps  are  all  of  a  pattern  which  may  perhaps  have 
received  its  form  elsewhere  in  the  Mediterranean. 

1  According  to  Zurora,  the  colonisation  of  these  islands  began  in  1445  (op. 
cit.  chap.  83). 

*  I.e.  the  Gorgodes  (or  Gorgones)  of  antiquity.  They  figure  commonly  in 
mediaeval  writings  and  maps :  e.g.  Lambert’s  “  mappamundi”  inLiber  Floridus. 
It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  they  are  identifiable  with  any  of  the  Atlantic 
archipelagoes— certainly  not  with  the  Azores,  which  were  unknown  in  classical 
times ;  cf.  Antonio  GalvSo,  op.  cit.  pp.  73-4. 


SECOND 


BOOK 


The  beginning  of  the  second  book  of  the 
Esmcraldo  De  Situ  Orbis,  describing  the  discoveries 
of  the  most  serene  Prince ,  King  Afonso  V  of 
Portugal.  Here  follows ,  firstly ,  the  Prologue. 

We  were  greatly  to  be  blamed  did  we  not  relate  what  we  can 
remember  of  the  things  we  have  seen  in  our  time  and  what  we 
can  with  truth  set  forth,  for  those  are  still  alive  whose  glory 
deserves  to  last  as  long  as  the  knowledge  of  their  great  achieve¬ 
ments  endures;  such  princes  deserve  fame  and  praise  befitting 
their  deeds,  and  although  this  applies  to  all,  it  is  especially  true 
of  those  whose  deeds  are  worthy  of  our  notice.  Therefore  we 
must  not  forget  the  late  most  serene  prince,  King  Afonso  V 
of  Portugal,  for  we  have  seen  what  an  excellent  and  truly 
magnanimous  man  he  was  and  what  immortality  he  gained  for 
himself,  for  which  reasons  his  fame  should  be  perpetuated.  But 
since  time  and  change  obscure  and  obliterate  our  knowledge  of 
things,  we  must  make  a  record  of  this  serene  sire  so  that  his 
fame  may  endure  from  generation  to  generation.  For  he  ruled 
these  realms  for  thirty-two  years1  in  justice  and  equity  and  was 
not  less  praised  for  the  feats  of  arms  which  he  performed  than 
in  the  government  of  the  State  which  he  ever  greatly  honoured. 
The  truth  compels  us  to  assert  that  he  was  an  eminent  and 
exceedingly  liberal-hearted  man ;  Our  Lord  endowed  him  with 
such  grace  and  nobility  of  character  that  he  was  universally 
loved  by  his  subjects  for  his  goodness.  His  fame  spreading 
through  many  provinces  and  regions,  the  Holy  Father  Pope 
Pius  II  elected  him  as  captain  for  the  Church  and  Christendom 
of  a  large  fleet  which  he  was  equipping  against  the  Turks  and 

1  From  1449  to  1481.  King  Duarte  died  in  1438  while  Alfonso,  the  heir 
apparent,  was  still  a  boy  of  six.  From  1438  to  1440  his  mother  was  Regent 
and  from  1440  to  1449  Prince  Pedro,  Duarte’s  brother. 


104  CONQUESTS  OF  ALFONSO  V 

for  which  he  granted  a  holy  indulgence  and  crusade1.  To  cele¬ 
brate  this,  this  most  serene  King  Afonso  was  the  first  in  these 
realms  to  order  the  coining  of  “crusados”  of  fine  gold  to  pay 
the  men  in  this  holy  war.  (The  value  of  each  crusado  was 
originally  325  reis.)  Owing,  however,  to  the  death  of  the  Holy 
Father  this  expedition  was  not  carried  out. 

In  the  service  of  God  this  virtuous  Prince  crossed  the  sea  in 
person  to  Africa  with  a  large  fleet  and  army,  and  captured  the 
town  of  Alcacere  Ciguer  from  the  Moors  on  the  19th  of  October 
in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  14581.  Later,  on  the  24th  of  August  of 
the  year  1471 3,  he  captured  the  town  of  Arzila,  the  Moors 
sustaining  a  great  loss  of  life ;  in  their  fear  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  very  strong  and  ancient  city  of  Tanger  fled  and  left  it 
desolate,  whereupon  this  excellent  prince  ordered  it  to  be  taken 
and  peopled.  All  of  these  things  we  saw,  with  many  other  great 

*  In  1453  Constantinople  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks;  the  Pope — 
Calixtus  III  (not  Pius  II  as  Pacheco  seems  to  think) — fearing  that  worse  was 
to  follow,  summoned  ail  the  princes  of  Europe  to  a  general  crusade  against 
the  infidels.  In  1456  a  special  legate,  the  Bishop  of  Silves,  was  sent  to 
Alfonso  V  by  Calixtus  with  the  bull  of  the  crusade.  The  king  warmly 
approved  the  plan  and  promised  12,000  men  at  his  own  cost.  He  also  struck, 
with  the  view  of  making  Portuguese  money  of  more  value  in  the  foreign 
countries  through  which  his  march  would  lie,  a  new  piece  of  gold  money 
which  had  a  cross  on  one  side.  This  was  the  "crusado."  In  no  country  was 
enthusiasm  for  the  defence  of  the  Christian  faith  stronger  than  in  Portugal : 
but  the  zeal  which  animated  King  Alfonso  was  inadequate,  with  his  limited 
resources,  to  contend  against  the  Turks,  unless  the  Pope’s  appeal  was  warmly 
responded  to  by  other  sovereigns.  Such,  however,  was  not  the  case,  for  they 
failed  to  answer  the  rallying  call,  and  after  the  death  of  Calixtus  in  1458  the 
crusade  came  to  nothing. 

1  As  soon  as  it  became  apparent  to  Alfonso  that  po  help  would  be  forth¬ 
coming  from  other  monarchs,  he  decided  to  carry  his  "crusaders"  into 
Africa.  His  first  intention  was  to  attack  Tangier,  but  eventually  he  made 
El-Qsar  es  Sgir  his  objective.  He  reached  this  town  on  21  October  (not  19th) 
1458,  and  after  a  brief,  but  very  decisive,  engagement  entered  it  on  foot 
with  his  uncle  Prince  Henry.  It  was  held  against  great  odds  for  some  ninety 
years  (until  1549). 

3  Alfonso’s  success  at  El-Qsar  cs  Sgir  encouraged  him  to  dream  of  large 
African  possessions  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  between  1458  and  r47i 
he  attempted  to  take  Tangier  without  success.  In  1471,  however,  the  king 
decided  to  renew  the  crusade  and  attack  Arzila.  The  city  was  taken  without 
much  difficulty  but  the  Moors  lost  2000  men  and  had  some  5000  taken 
prisoner.  One  unexpected  outcome  of  the  capture  of  Arzila  was  the  abandon¬ 
ment  of  Tangier.  The  inhabitants  of  that  city  finding  themselves  between  two 
Portuguese  strongholds  decided  to  save  their  lives  by  fleeing  before  any 
possible  attack  might  be  launched  upon  them. 


SHERBRO’  RIVER  I05 

achievements,  but  it  is  vain  to  record  in  so  base  a  style  the  deeds 
of  so  high  a  prince.  We  need  only  say  that  after  the  death  of 
Prince  Henry  he  succeeded  to  the  enterprise  of  the  Ethiopias 
of  Guinea  and  ordered  the  discoveries  to  be  continued  beyond 
Serra  Lyoa.  In  order  that  our  memory  of  him  might  be  the 
more  enduring  we  have  drawn  here  the  “  Rodizio1”  which  he 
used  as  his  device,  with  his  motto  “Jamays.”  He  died  in  the 
town  of  Sintra  on  the  28th  of  August  in  the  year  of  Our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  1481*. 


Chapter  i 

of  the  second  hook  of  the  Esmeraldo  De  Situ  Orbis. 

Six  leagues  SSE  of  Cabo  Ledo  in  Serra  Lyoa  appear  three  islets 
called  Ilhas  Bravas*,  on  the  largest  of  which  is  an  excellent  spring 
of  fresh  water.  From  there  onwards  the  coast  forms  a  very  large 
bay,  twenty-five  leagues  round  or  more  (as  appears  in  the  figure 
beyond  the  “Rodizio”),  which  we  call  Fuma  de  Santa  Anna; 
into  this  flow  many  rivers,  the  principal  being  called  the  Rio  das 
Ganboas4;  this  river  and  the  Ilhas  Bravas  lie  E  and  W  and 
occupy  eight  leagues  of  the  route.  At  the  mouth  of  this  river  is 
a  great  reef  of  rock  which  runs  along  the  shore  for  a  good  half 
league;  the  channel  of  the  river  has  a  muddy  bottom,  with  three 
fathoms  at  high  tide.  Small  vessels  can  sail  a  league  up  it  to 
a  place  called  Harhouche,  where  some  gold  and  slaves  are 
bartered  for  bloodstones,  brass  bracelets,  red  cloth,  linen,  brass 
basins  and  other  things  of  this  kind.  The  whole  of  this  Fuma  de 

*  Alfonso’s  device  was  a  mill-wheel  with  drops  of  water  scattered  round  it, 
symbolical  of  his  love  for  his  wife  and  regret  at  her  death,  which  is  further 
shown  by  the  motto  “Jamays  ” :  he  could  never  forget  her  (E.  Prestage,  op.  cit. 
p.  178).  His  wife,  Isobel,  whom  he  married  in  1446  (or  1447)  died  in  1449 
almost  immediately  after  the  death  of  her  father,  Don  Pedro,  Alfonso’s  uncle. 

1  The  existing  MSS.  read  1471. 

3  I.e.  Banana  Isles — “a  group  of  three  islands  with  the  appearance,  from  a 
distance  of  10  miles,  of  a  few  sharp  peaks. . ."  ( Africa  Pilot,  Part  r,  p.  275); 
hence  the  name  “bravas”  (meaning  “wild”). 

4  I.e.  Sherbro’  River,  the  mouth  of  which  is  troubled  by  the  Bengal  Rocks 
and  numerous  shoals  (vitU  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  pp.  277-8). 


CAPE  ST  ANN 


106 

Santa  Anna  is  beset  with  many  shallows  of  rock  and  sand1,  and 
a  ship  bound  for  Malagueta  or  Mina  without  having  to  touch 
here  should  take  another  course,  according  to  the  directions  that 
follow.  All  the  inhabitants  of  this  country'  are  called  Boulooes. 

Aqui  mapa. 

Item.  If  a  ship  of  about  thirty-five  tons  has  to  go  from  Cabo 
Ledo  in  Serra  Lyoa  to  the  coast  of  Malagueta  or  Mina  it  should 
sail  SSW  and  will  double  Cabo  de  Santa  Anna  in  eight  or  nine 
fathoms  at  a  distance  of  six  leagues  from  the  shore ;  but  a  large 
ship  should  steer  SW  when  it  will  be  in  twelve  and  fifteen 
fathoms,  and  when  it  is  in  thirty  fathoms  it  must  sail  ESE ;  in 
this  way  it  will  arrive  at  a  cape  called  Cabo  do  Monte  which  is 
thirty  leagues  beyond  Cabo  de  Santa  Anna.  Thence  one  can  sail 
to  the  coast  of  Malagueta  or  of  Mina,  as  we  shall  explain  below. 
This  Cabo  de  Santa  Anna  is  very  low-lying  land  and  has  three 
islets3  at  its  point;  the  land  within  the  bay  is  intersected  by  an 
arm  of  the  sea,  which  extends  to  Rio  das  Palmas,  the  cape  thus 
forming  an  island  called  Turulo*.  From  Cabo  Ledo  in  Serra 
Lyoa  to  this  Cabo  de  Santa  Anna  is  sixteen  leagues  and  the 
latitude  of  this  cape  is  70  north  4.  The  shape  of  this  country  will 
be  seen  from  the  illustration  and  painting. 

Item.  Cabo  de  Santa  Anna  and  Rio  das  Palmas  lie  E  and  W 
and  occupy  twelve  leagues  of  the  route.  The  channel  of  this 
river  changes  two  and  three  times  a  year  5,  so  that  I  can  say 
nothing  certain  about  it ;  I  can  only  state  that  it  has  many  sand 
shallows  at  its  mouth  and  that  he  who  would  enter  must  for 
safety’s  sake  take  soundings  at  its  bar.  Alternatively  he  may  enter 
the  Fuma  de  Santa  Anna  by  an  arm  of  the  sea  running  along 
the  island  of  Turulo  and  so  reach  the  said  Rio  das  Palmas,  as 
may  be  seen  in  our  illustration  and  painting.  The  land  to  the 
SE  at  the  mouth  of  this  river  is  a  little  higher  than  that  at  the 
mouth  of  the  other  one  we  spoke  of  above.  If  he  sails  up  this 

'  I.e.  the  shoals  of  St  Ann  (vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  277). 

*  The  three  islets  lying  off  Cape  St  Ann  are  the  Turtle  Islands. 

J  I.e.  Sherbro’  Island ;  cf.  S.  Pimentel,  Arte  Pratica,  p.  253,  where  the 
island  is  called  Farulho. 

*  Actually  70  34'  N.  In  his  list  of  latitudes  (book  I,  chap.  7)  Pacheco  gives 
the  latitude  as  70  20'. 

5  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  282. 


THE  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  COASTS  ON  AN  ITALIAN  CHART  OF  c.  1508 
British  Museum.  Egerton  MS.  2803 


7* 


GALLINAS  RIVER 


107 

river  for  twenty-five  leagues1  in  a  small  vessel  of  thirty  or  thirty- 
five  tons,  he  will  find  seven  villages,  and  beyond  them  a  large 
town  of  five  or  six  thousand  inhabitants,  called  Quynamo*.  In 
two  months  here  it  is  possible  to  obtain  1,500  doubloons  for 
such  merchandise  as  I  mentioned  in  chapter  i*  and  also  for  tin, 
which*  is  much  prized  here.  It  is  also  possible  to  buy  some 
slaves  here  for  the  same  merchandise ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  be 
on  guard  against  the  negroes  of  this  country,  for  they  are  very 
evil  people  and  attack  our  ships  in  great  canoes.  They  are  called 
Boulooes,  and  their  country  is  rich  in  rice  and  other  produce 
but  very  subject  to  fevers. 


Chapter  ii 

Concerning  the  Rio  das  Galinhas  [and  the  land  beyond]. 

All  the  country  from  Rio  das  Palmas  along  the  coast  to  Rio  das 
Galinhas5  is  very  low  and  wooded ;  it  is  hot  throughout  the  year. 
The  winter  begins  in  May  and  ends  in  October6,  when  there  is 
much  rain,  but  also  sultry  heat  for,  as  Alfragano  says,  in  the 
land  of  the  Ethiopians  winter  and  summer  are  the  same  in 
character?,  the  reason  being  that  a  part  of  Ethiopia  lies  on  the 
Equator  and  a  part  near  it ;  it  is  because  of  this  that  it  is  so  hot. 
Rio  das  Galinhas  and  Rio  das  Palmas  lie  E  by  S  and  W  by  N  and 
occupy  twelve  leagues  of  the  route.  But  since  this  Rio  das 
Galinhas  yields  no  profit  I  will  not  make  bold  to  speak  of  it. 

Item.  Rio  das  Galinhas  and  Cabo  do  Monte  lie  NW  by  W 
and  SE  by  E  and  occupy  fifteen  leagues.  This  Cabo  do  Monte  is 

*  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  X,  p.  282. 

*  Quimanora,  in  S.  Pimentel,  op.  cit.  p.  263. 

s  Book  ii,  chap,  x,  para.  i.  4  Text  corrupt. 

5  I.e.  Gallinas  River. 

4  The  word  “  winter”  is  unfortunate  (as  Pacheco  appears  to  realise  from  the 
following  statement),  for  the  difference  between  the  highest  and  lowest 
monthly  mean  temperatures  is  only  5°  F.  At  Freetown  the  range  is  from 
77-4°  to  82-2°.  The  lowest  temperatures  occur  during  the  rainy  season,  which 
commences  in  April  and  lasts  until  November.  On  the  coast,  e.g.  at  Freetown, 
as  much  as  175  inches  fall  during  these  months. 

7  Vide  book  1,  chap.  33,  p.  100  note. 


108  CAPES  MOUNT  AND  MESURADO 

fairly  high1,  and  when  it  is  seen  to  the  NE  by  E,  its  summit 
appears  as  two ;  it  is  the  only  mountain  on  this  coast.  The  sea 
round  it  is  deep,  with  45  and  50  fathoms  a  league  from  shore, 
the  bottom  being  nearly  all  mud.  Half  a  league  beyond  Cabo  do 
Monte  to  the  W  is  a  river  which  we  call  Rio  dos  Monos3,  but 
others  give  it  a  different  name.  Although  its  mouth  is  fairly  wide 
it  cannot  be  seen  unless  one  is  close  to  the  shore;  the  channel 
of  this  river  is  very  shallow,  with  a  depth  of  a  span  more  than 
a  fathom  at  high  tide,  so  that  only  a  very  small  vessel  can  enter  it. 
Ascending  it  about  thirty  leagues  you  will  come  to  a  region 
called  Coyah  whence  comes  all  the  gold  to  Serra  Lyoa  and  its 
region;  it  is  very  fine  gold  of  23  carats.  Salt  is  much  prized 
here,  but  tin  and  other  merchandise  of  similar  value,  much 
more.  The  people  of  this  country  are  called  Cobales. 

Item.  From  Cabo  do  Monte  to  Cabo  Mesurado  is  twelve 
leagues.  Cabo  Mesurado  has  the  shape  of  a  round  hill,  but 
when  you  are  in  front  of  it,  it  appears  to  be  bifurcated,  there 
being  one  hillock  on  one  side,  and  another  on  the  other.  Its 
latitude  is  6°  20'  north  of  the  Equator4  and  the  coast  here  runs 
NW  by  W  and  SE  by  E. 

Item.  From  Cabo  Mesurado  to  the  forest  of  Santa  Maria* 
is  two  leagues;  this  forest  is  very  large  and  dense,  and  at  this 
point  there  begins  the  trade  in  “malagueta”  (which,  in  Latin, 
is  called  “grana  paradisy  ”)6 ;  and  it  continues  for  forty  leagues 
along  the  coast. 

Item.  From  the  forest  of  Santa  Maria  to  Rio  de  Sam  Paulo  7 
is  six  leagues,  and  at  this  river  gold  of  23  carats  quality  is  found, 

*  I.e.  Cape  Mount.  According  to  Pedro  de  Sintra  the  cape  was  so  named 
because  he  saw  a  very  lofty  mountain  beyond  it  (vide  Cadamosto,  op.  cit. 
pp.  191-2). 

1  I.e.  Cape  Mount  River  (vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  284). 

J  Chouxcha  in  S.  Pimentel,  op.  at.  p.  263. 

4  Actually  Cape  Mesurado  is  6°  19'  N. 

5  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  286. 

6  Maleguette  pepper  (the  same  as  “guinea  grains,”  “grains  of  Paradise” 
and  “alligator  pepper”)  is  the  seed  of  Amomtcm  Melegueta,  a  plant  of  the 
ginger  family:  the  seeds  arc  exceedingly  pungent  and  are  used  as  a  spice 
throughout  central  and  northern  Africa.  John  Pory  (op.  cit.  p.  78)  describes 
it  thus :  "  a  little  red  grain  which  there  groweth,  being  in  shape  somewhat  like 
to  the  millet  of  Italy,  but  of  a  most  vehement  and  fiery  taste.” 

7  I.e.  St  Paul  River. 


CESTOS  RIVER 


IO9 

although  in  small  quantity.  At  this  point  there  commence  some 
fairly  high  mountains  which  we  call  the  mountains  of  Sam 
Paulo x,  because  these  mountains  and  this  river  were  discovered 
on  the  day  of  the  Apostle  Sam  Paulo ;  they  run  along  the  coast 
to  the  east  for  six  or  seven  leagues  at  about  two  leagues’  distance 
from  the  seashore.  The  landmark  of  the  Rio  de  Sam  Paulo  is 
that  it  is  at  the  beginning  of  these  mountains;  the  coast  runs 
NW  and  ESE,  and  the  course  is  two  leagues  at  sea  from  the 
mouth  of  this  river. 

Item.  From  Rio  de  S.  Paulo  to  Rio  do  Junco*  is  six  leagues. 
This  river  has  an  islet  at  its  mouth;  here,  too,  there  is  gold  in 
small  quantity  and  likewise  malagueta. 

Item.  From  Rio  do  Junco  to  Rio  dos  Cestos*  is  twelve 
leagues;  its  name  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  negroes  of  this 
country  come  to  the  ships  to  sell  pepper  (which  is  very  good  and 
fairly  plentiful  here)  in  baskets,  which  they  do  not  do  elsewhere 
on  the  coast  where  this  pepper  is  sold.  Ships  should,  for  safety’s 
sake,  anchor  in  ten  to  twelve  fathoms  and  so  be  on  a  muddy 
bottom  a  league  from  land  opposite  the  mouth  of  this  Rio  dos 
Cestos ;  but  at  twenty  to  twenty-five  fathoms  the  bottom  is  foul 
with  rock.  The  mouth  of  this  river  is  very  small  and  is  only 
visible  by  those  entering  the  bay4  which  the  coast  makes  there; 
to  the  east  there  is  a  spur  of  rock  which  runs  out  as  a  reef  into 
the  sea  and  it  is  called  Cabo  das  Baixas*.  The  latitude  of  the 
Rio  dos  Cestos  is  50  30'  N  of  the  Equator6.  The  inhabitants 
of  this  country  and  of  twenty-five  leagues  or  more  beyond  are 
called  Zeguebos.  Half  a  league  beyond  the  mouth  of  this  river, 
at  the  Cabo  das  Baixas  of  which  we  have  spoken,  there  is  a  fairly 
dense  grove  of  trees.  Such  are  the  landmarks  of  this  river.  In 
the  same  parallel  lies  the  castle  of  S.  Jorze  da  Mina.  The  Rio 
dos  Cestos  and  the  Rio  do  Junco  lie  SE  by  E  and  NW  by  W  and 
occupy  twelve  leagues  of  the  route. 

*  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  286. 

*  I.e.  Junk  River. 

s  This  name  is  still  retained;  the  word  signifies  large  wicker-baskets. 

«  I.e.  Cestos  Bay.  5  I.e-  Cestos  Reef. 

6  Cestos  Point  is  5°  26'  N. 


IIO 


Chapter  iii 

of  the  second  book  of  the  Esmeraldo  De  Situ  Orbis. 

For  order  and  clearness  in  the  series  of  landmarks  and  routes 
along  this  coast,  we  will  describe  in  detail  the  places  and  such 
particulars  concerning  them  as  we  may  think  good. 

Item.  Three  leagues  beyond  the  Rio  dos  Cestos  is  a  small 
island  a  quarter  of  a  league  from  land  called  Ilha  da  Palma  *,  a 
name  derived  from  the  palm-tree  which  is  still  there  in  our  day. 
We  do  not  navigate  between  the  island  and  the  land,  for  con¬ 
ditions  do  not  admit  of  it ;  but  if  anyone  wishes  to  anchor  here 
in  a  small  vessel  he  may  do  so  in  ten  fathoms  nearly  a  league 
from  shore  on  a  clean  bottom.  Here  he  will  be  able  to  buy  and 
barter  slaves*. .  .which  are  called  “guey”  and  also  “nhunho.” 
However,  this  is  now  ruined ;  when  it  was  properly  conducted 
one  could  buy  a  bushel  of  pepper  for  a  brass  bracelet  weighing 
about  half  a  pound,  and  a  slave  for  two  basins  such  as  barbers 
use,  but  now  a  bushel  of  pepper  is  worth  five  or  six  bracelets 
and  a  slave  four  or  five  basins.  The  negroes  of  this  coast  are 
uncircumcised  and  naked,  and  are  idolaters,  having  neither 
religion  nor  goodness;  they  are  great  fishermen  and  go  two  or 
three  leagues  out  to  sea  to  fish,  in  canoes  which,  in  shape,  are 
like  weavers’  shuttles  3. 

Item.  From  Ilha  da  Palma  to  Ilheos  is  two  leagues.  These 
islets  are  two  in  number1 * * 4  and  are  completely  bare,  without  soil 
or  trees,  and  are  very  white  from  the  guano  of  birds  which  sleep 
there.  Round  these  islets  are  many  very  dangerous  shoals  of 
rock,  some  of  them  visible  above  water  and  some  not ;  a  large 
ship  of  eighty  to  a  hundred  tons  should  anchor  in  thirty-five 
fathoms  a  good  league  and  a  half  from  the  shore,  but  a  small 

1  I.c.  Di  Rock — the  highest  of  several  large  rocks  standing  on  Diabolitos 
Reef  {vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  291). 

1  Judging  by  the  context,  this  lacuna  originally  contained  the  words  “and 
malagueta.’’ 

5  Cf.  S.  Pimentel,  op.  cit.  p.  264. 

4  The  Africa  Pilot  speaks  of  several  islets  in  this  vicinity  that  constitute 
dangers  to  shipping.  One  of  them  is  actually  called  White  Rock  (Part  1, 
pp.  291-2). 


TRADE  ALONG  LIBERIAN  COAST 


III 


ship  may  anchor  at  eight  fathoms  below  these  islets  on  a  clean 
sandy  bottom  one  league  out  at  sea,  which  is  the  position  of 
these  islets.  Whoever  comes  here  should  beware  of  anchoring  in 
twenty  to  twenty-five  fathoms,  for  the  bottom  is  foul  and  he 
would  lose  his  anchors.  A  prudent  man  will  not  trade  on  this 
coast  from  the  beginning  of  May  till  the  end  of  September,  for 
the  country  is  subject  to  tempestuous  weather  and  great  thunder¬ 
storms  \  A  fair  amount  of  pepper  is  found  here  and  some  slaves ; 
these  may  be  bartered  for  the  merchandise  which  I  have 
mentioned  in  previous  chapters. 

Item.  From  the  said  Ilheos  to  Cabo  Fermoso 1  is  five  leagues, 
and  this  cape  does  not  run  far  out  into  the  sea ;  like  the  rest  of 
the  coast  it  is  densely  wooded  and  is  difficult  to  find  for  those 
who  come  in  from  the  sea. 

Item.  From  Cabo  Fermoso  to  Resguate  do  Genovs  3  is  three 
leagues;  when  King  Afonso  V  ordered  the  discovery  of  this 
country  a  Genoese  seaman  who  sailed  in  one  of  the  ships  was 
the  first  to  land  here  and  to  barter  for  pepper,  hence  the  name 
of  this  place — Resguate  do  Genoes4.  Its  landmark  is  a  small 
wood  of  fairly  tall  trees,  shaped  like  an  eyebrow,  high  in  the 
centre  and  pointed  at  the  ends ;  here  there  is  a  very  small  river 
whose  mouth  is  only  visible  when  one  is  very  near  the  land. 
Pepper  and  slaves  can  be  obtained  there  in  the  way  we  have  said. 
Anchorage  can  be  had  in  fifteen  fathoms  on  a  clean  bottom  a 
little  over  half  a  league  from  land. 

Item.  From  Resguate  do  Genoes  to  Rio  de  S.  Vincente  5  is 
three  leagues.  Between  them  there  is  a  sharp  point  which  rims 

*  The  season  of  mjgor  rains  along  the  Liberian  coast  begins  in  April  and 
continues,  with  an  interval  of  about  a  month  in  August  during  which  there  is 
less  rain,  until  mid-November.  Tornadoes  are  frequent  throughout  this 
period,  and  especially  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  rains. 

*  Sangwin  Point  (?),  Wilson  Point  (?). 

5  The  coast  between  Baffu  Point  and  Tassu  Point  (?)  ( vide  Africa  Pilot, 
Part  i,  p.  293).  The  discovery  of  this  part  of  the  coast  was  effected  c.  aj>.  1470- 
In  1469  Alfonso  V  “  let  out  for  yearly  rent  the  trade  of  Guinea  ”  to  a  wealthy 
citizen  of  Lisbon,  Fem2o  Gomes,  for  five  years,  on  condition  that  he  should 
discover  a  too  leagues  of  coast  every  year,  starting  from  Sierra  Leone.  As  a 
result  of  this  agreement,  a  rapid  advance  was  made  eastwards  and  southwards. 
However,  practically  no  details  of  the  voyages  have  been  preserved  and  their 
dates  are  uncertain. 

4  I.e.  '*  bartering-place  of  the  Genoese.” 

5  I.e.  Grand  Butu  River. 


1 12  FLEMISH  EXPEDITION  TO  MINA 

out  into  the  sea1;  it  is  very  rocky  and  has  some  trees.  To  the 
E  of  this  point  is  the  small  river  of  which  we  have  spoken ;  it  is 
difficult  to  enter,  because  the  sea  is  running  into  it  most  of  the 
time,  and  boats  from  our  ships  entering  it  to  take  in  water  and 
wood  have,  on  occasions,  been  lost.  This  river  and  Rio  dos 
Cestos  lie  SE  by  E  and  NW  by  N  and  occupy  fifteen  leagues 
of  the  route.  Pepper  is  found  here. 

Item.  Four  leagues  along  the  coast  beyond  the  Rio  de 
S.  Vincente  is  the  Praya  dos  Escravos3,  which  extends  for  two 
leagues  or  more ;  its  name  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  certain 
slaves  were  obtained  by  barter  here  when  this  land  was  dis¬ 
covered,  but  now  it  is  a  place  of  little  barter  because  on  the  coast 
before  and  after  it  more  pepper  and  slaves  are  found  than  on 
this  part  of  the  shore  itself.  In  the  year  of  Our  Lord  1475  a  ship 
was  fitted  out  by  Flemings  in  Flanders3,  with  a  Castilian  captain, 
who  dared  to  sail  with  their  merchandise  to  Mina  seven  or  eight 
years  before  the  castle  of  S.  Jorze  was  built.  They  obtained  five 
or  six  thousand  doubloons,  but  as  they  did  not  fear  the  heavy 
excommunications  of  the  Holy  Fathers  who  granted  to  the  Kings 
of  Portugal  that  none  of  any  other  race  than  Portuguese  with 
the  permission  of  the  Kings  of  Portugal  should  sail  thither,  and 
as  they  did  not  fear  the  prohibitions  of  the  Holy  Mother  Church, 
God  gave  them  a  bad  end;  for  on  their  return  voyage  from 
Mina,  when  they  were  opposite  this  Praya  dos  Escravos,  as  the 
wind  was  then  calm  and  in  the  west  they  anchored  in  twenty-five 
fathoms ;  but  as  the  bottom  along  all  this  coast  is  full  of  rock  it 
cut  through  their  hawser  during  the  night,  and  a  wind  blowing 
up  from  the  sea  drove  their  ship  on  to  the  beach,  where  it  was 
wrecked.  The  negroes  there  ate  the  thirty-five  Flemings  who 

*  I.e.  Grand  Butu  Point  (vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  295)* 

*  Sinu  Bay  (?). 

*  Notwithstanding  the  grants  made  by  successive  Popes  to  the  Kings  of 
Portugal  of  the  exclusive  rights  to  the  lands  and  seas  discovered  to  the  south, 
vessels  of  other  nations  carried  on  “poaching”  expeditions  along  the  Guinea 
coast.  Spanish  rivalry  was  especially  keen  and  led  to  some  sharp  diplomatic 
exchanges  between  the  two  Cortes.  Written  agreements  proving  to  be  mere 
“scraps  of  paper,”  Alfonso  V  finally  decreed  in  1480  that  the  crews  of  foreign 
vessels  found  in  the  sphere  granted  to  him  by  Papal  bulls  should  be  thrown 
into  the  sea  ( vide  Alguns  Documentor...,  p.  45).  Judging  by  the  embassy 
sent  by  John  II  of  Portugal  to  Edward  IV  in  1482,  it  would  appear  that  the 
English  were  already  interested  in  maritime  enterprise  along  the  African  coast. 


NATIVE  TRAFFIC  IN  PEPPER 


ll3 

formed  the  crew.  We  learnt  this  from  the  negroes  themselves 
and  from  Pedro  Gon5alves  Neto1,  who  in  the  following  year 
went  there  as  captain  of  a  ship  and  obtained  in  barter  nearly  all 
the  gold  which  the  Flemings  had  with  them  and  some  of  their 
clothes. 

Item.  From  Praya  dos  Escravos  to  Lagea*  is  seven  leagues, 
and  all  this  coast  from  Rio  de  S.  Vincente  to  Lagea  lies  WNW 
and  ESE.  Lagea  is  a  huge  rock  more  than  a  bowshot  long  and 
half  a  bowshot  wide  and  is  a  little  over  a  quarter  of  a  league 
distant  from  the  shore.  This  is  the  best  place  for  pepper  along 
the  whole  of  this  coast,  and  the  landmarks  are  the  rock  itself 
and  the  land  beyond  it,  which  has  the  appearance  of  a  great  tall 
wood.  The  ship  that  would  trade  here  should  anchor  at  ten  or 
twelve  fathoms  on  a  muddy  bottom,  but  should  beware  of 
anchoring  at  twenty  or  twenty-five  fathoms,  for  it  is  all  rock  and 
the  anchors  will  be  lost.  The  negroes  of  all  this  coast  bring 
pepper  for  barter  to  the  ships  in  the  canoes  in  which  they  go 
out  fishing.  They  are  naked  and  are  not  circumcised,  and  they 
are  idolaters,  being  heathens. 

Item.  From  Lagea  to  Cabo  de  S.  Cremente 3  is  five  leagues; 
this  part  of  the  coast  runs  WNW  and  ESE.  The  cape  is  densely 
wooded  and  does  not  run  far  into  the  sea.  There  is  a  little  pepper 
here.  All  the  negroes  of  the  coast  are  idolaters  and  are  not 
circumcised ;  they  are  vicious  people  and  seldom  at  peace. 

Item.  From  Cabo  de  S.  Cremente  to  Cabo  das  Palmas  is 
ten  leagues,  and  the  route  lies  E  and  W.  He  who  leaves  the  shore 
at  Cabo  de  S.  Cremente  for  Cabo  das  Palmas  must  sail  E  by  S  in 
order  to  be  safe.  This  Cabo  das  Palmas4  forms  a  slender  pro- 

*  Possibly  one  of  Femfio  Gomes’s  captains.  Palencia  in  his  Chronicle  of 
Henry  IV  of  Castille  (vol.  rv,  pp.  205  et  seq.,  Paz  y  Mclia’s  edition,  1908)  tells 
us  that  in  1476  Prince  John  cancelled  Gomes’s  contract,  owing  to  the  in¬ 
cursions  of  the  Spanish  expeditions,  which  interfered  with  his  (Gomes’s) 
monopoly,  and  decided  to  send  him  to  Guinea  with  a  fleet  of  twenty  sail  to 
bring  back  gold  dust  and  slaves  before  the  Andalusian  fleet,  which  they  were 
expecting  to  encounter,  could  start.  This  expedition  appears  to  have  been 
eminently  gratifying  to  the  Portuguese,  but  the  details  are  wanting. 

*  Druta  Rock  (?)  ( vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  299). 

i  Subbubo  Point  (?)  {vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  300). 

4  Cape  Palmas  (40  22'  N.)  is  actually  fronted  by  a  small  island — Russwurm 
Island — which,  however,  is  “difficult  to  distinguish  against  the  cape”  {vide 
Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  306). 


HK 


8 


CAPE  PALMAS 


XI4 

montory  which  extends  seawards  a  considerable  distance  and  has 
a  row  of  palm-trees;  out  to  sea  about  a  league  from  this  cape  are 
two  very  dangerous  shallows  of  rock  over  which  the  sea  breaks. 
The  latitude  of  this  cape  is  40  10'  N  of  the  Equator.  Beyond  it 
the  coast  turns  ENE,  and  these  are  the  signs  by  which  one  can 
distinguish  the  cape,  the  chief  being  its  latitude.  On  the  main¬ 
land  at  the  extremity  of  this  cape  is  a  spring  of  good  fresh  water ; 
sometimes  in  case  of  necessity  we  take  in  water  at  a  sandy  bay 
situated  behind  this  cape  to  the  W.  He  who  enters  here  need 
not  fear  to  sail  between  the  two  shallows  and  the  shore,  for 
everywhere  there  is  a  clean  bottom  with  twelve  or  thirteen 
fathoms  of  water.  From  the  month  of  September  to  the  end  of 
March  and  for  some  months  after  the  sea  runs  past  this  cape 
eastwards  and  eastnortheastwards  so  strongly1  that  ships  bound 
from  Mina  to  Portugal  cannot  double  it  unless  a  gust  of  favour¬ 
able  wind  blow's  from  the  stem  or  hatchway.  We  therefore  steer 
a  course  WSW  to  avoid  the  coast  of  Malagueta,  which  ends  in 
Cabo  das  Palmas.  Two  leagues  beyond  this  cape  the  land  runs 
out  into  a  rugged  promontory3  with  spurs  of  rock  covered  with 
trees ;  it  projects  seawards  as  far  as,  or  farther  than,  Cabo  das 
Palmas,  and  here  there  is  a  village  which  w'e  have  called  “  Aldea 
de  Portugal.”  The  natives  of  Cabo  das  Palmas  are  called 
Eguorebo^. 


Chapter  iv 

Concerning  the  routes  and  landmarks  from  Cabo  das 
Palmas  to  the  Castle  of  S.  Jorze  da  Mina. 

We  must  notice  the  difference  in  the  direction  of  the  coast 
beyond  Cabo  das  Palmas,  for  beyond  this  cape  it  runs  in  one 
direction,  and  on  this  side  of  the  cape,  along  the  coast  of  Mala¬ 
gueta,  in  another :  any  pilot  going  to  these  parts  should  observe 
this  and  the  latitude  of  this  cape,  and  he  will  then  make  no 

*  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  pp.  307,  310. 

*  I.e.  Growa  Point. 

1  Siguorebo  in  S.  Pimentel,  op.  cit.  p.  266. 


IVORY  COAST  I  15 

mistake,  even  if  he  does  not  know  this  country  as  we  now  know 
it  after  the  experience  of  many  years. 

Item.  Eight  leagues  beyond  Cabo  das  Palmas  is  a  river  called 
Rio  de  S.  Pedro1;  they  lie  WSW  and  ENE.  This  river  has  a 
small  mouth,  but  as  we  are  not  accustomed  to  enter  it  and  have 
no  practical  knowledge  of  it,  we  will  therefore  not  write  about 
that  which  is  unknown  to  us,  although  the  coast  itself  we  have 
come  to  know  well  enough  from  years  of  experience. 

Item.  From  Rio  de  S.  Pedro  to  Rio  de  S.  Andr£  is  twenty- 
five  leagues,  and  between  them  is  a  narrow  cape,  called  Cabo 
da  Praya3,  which  has  on  the  W  side  some  fields  called  “the  rice 
fields.”  Farther  on  the  land  forms  a  bay*  having  a  broad  head¬ 
land  at  its  entrance  and  a  white  rock  like  an  islet  standing  in  the 
sea4.  All  this  coast  is  inhabited.  A  little  beyond  this  bay  along 
the  sea  are  six  or  seven  hills*;  these  are  eight  leagues  distant 
from  Rio  de  S.  Andr£.  The  coast  lies  W  by  S  and  E  by  N.  Rio 
de  S.  Andre6  has  a  wide  mouth,  and  when  opposite  it  you  can 
see  above  its  mouth  some  trees  in  the  interior  which  look  like 
pine-trees;  half  a  league  up  the  river  there  is  an  island  in 
mid-stream.  From  the  ricefields  to  this  river  you  will  find  a 
muddy  bottom  with  some  patches  of  sand  if  you  anchor  half  a 
league  from  the  shore  in  twenty  fathoms;  at  a  league  from  land 
the  depth  is  fifty  fathoms.  But  as  we  have  not  yet  had  any 
experience  or  traffic  at  this  Rio  de  S.  Andre  we  will  say  no  more 
of  it  here,  except  that  we  have  learnt  that  the  country  is  densely 
populated  and  this  river,  like  all  the  other  rivers  of  Guinea,  is 
rife  with  fever. 

Item.  Three  leagues  beyond  the  Rio  de  S.  Andr6  you  find 
tall  red  cliffs?  along  the  coast,  extending  for  four  or  five  leagues ; 
these  lie  E  and  W  with  respect  to  the  river  and  are  composed 
of  very  red  clay  and  are  the  landmark  for  the  said  R.  de  S.  Andr£. 

Item.  From  the  red  cliffs  to  Rio  d’Alaguoa8  is  eight  leagues, 
and  the  coast  lies  W  by  S  and  E  by  N.  The  landmarks  of  this 

*  Name  retained  to  the  present  day. 

*  Drewin  (or  Moncho)  Point  {vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  316). 

1  Victoria  Gulf  (or  Bay)  {vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  316). 

4  Boulakba  Rocks  {vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  t,  p.  316). 

5  The  Drewin  Highland.  *  Sassandra  (or  St  Andrew)  River. 

7  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  r,  p.  319.  *  I.e.  Lahu  River. 


8-2 


IVORY  COAST 


Il6 

Rio  d’Alaguoa  are  a  wood,  like  a  pinewood,  above  its  mouth  in 
the  interior,  and  the  fact  that  this  river  flows  along  the  coast  till 
it  reaches  a  village1  where  in  our  day  there  are  four  palm-trees, 
each  standing  apart  by  itself ;  on  the  farther  side  of  this  village 
is  a  very  large  lake,  which  you  cannot  see  unless  you  climb  the 
ship’s  mast.  All  this  coast  has  a  good  clean  bottom  as  far  as 
Cabo  das  Tres  Pontas ;  we  do  not  know  if  there  is  any  commerce 
here. 

Item.  Seven  leagues  beyond  Rio  d’Alaguoa  there  are  seven 
villages,  which  are  very  well  populated,  extending  seven  or  eight 
leagues  along  the  coast ;  the  coast  runs  E  and  W  and  is  composed 
entirely  of  beach  of  a  reddish  sand.  The  country  is  densely 
wooded  and  the  depth  near  the  shore  is  thirty  to  forty  fathoms, 
but  it  is  less  than  this  two  leagues  out  at  sea.  The  negroes  of  this 
coast  are  great  fishermen  and  their  canoes  have  fo’castles.  They 
wear  hooded  caps  like  those  of  shepherds ;  they  go  naked  and 
are  idolaters.  We  call  them  “Rei$udosV*  They  are  evil  people 
and  there  is  no  commerce  here. 

Item.  From  the  seven  villages  to  Rio  de  Mayo3  is  twelve 
leagues ;  the  mouth  of  this  river  is  not  large  and  the  country 
round  it  is  very  low,  marshy  and  well-wooded.  We  know  nothing 
of  what  trade  there  may  be  in  this  country,  but  only  know  that 
it  is  densely  populated. 

Item.  From  Rio  de  Mayo  to  Rio  de  Soeyro4  is  ten  leagues. 
This  Rio  de  Soeyro  was  discovered  by  Soeyro  da  Costa  at  the 
bidding  of  King  Afonso  V.  Whoever  sails  from  the  shore  past  the 
seven  villages  to  this  Rio  de  Soeyro,  must  sail  E  by  S,  close  in 
to  the  shore,  and  by  this  course  he  will  not  go  wrong. 

Item.  From  Rio  de  Soeyro  to  the  Serra  de  Santa  Apolonia 3 
is  twelve  leagues;  the  coast  lies  WNW  and  ESE.  Six  leagues 
beyond  these  hills  you  will  see  a  fortress6  which  Our  Lord  King 

*  Grand  Lahu  (?)  (vide  Africa  Pilot ,  Part  I,  p.  320). 

*  I.e.  “the  thick-lipped.”  *  I.e.  Komo€  River. 

«  I.e.  Assini  River:  to  this  day  the  hills  behind  the  mouth  of  this  river  are 
called  after  da  Costa,  who  was  one  of  the  captains  employed  by  Fernio  Gomes 
during  the  period  of  his  Guinea  trading  lease. 

*  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  325. 

*  A  fort — St  Anthony’s — still  commands  the  bay  in  which  the  port  of 
Axim  is  situated. 


TRADE  AT  AXIM 


117 

Manuel  ordered  to  be  built,  where  yearly  there  is  obtained  in 
barter  thirty  to  forty  thousand  doubloons  of  good  gold.  The 
country  is  called  Axem  and  is  very  subject  to  fever.  The 
merchandise  exchanged  for  gold  consists  of  brass  bracelets, 
basins  of  the  same  metal,  red  and  blue  cloth,  linen  neither  very 
coarse  nor  very  fine,  and  “lanbens,”  that  is,  a  kind  of  mantle 
made  like  the  shawls  of  Alentejo,  with  stripes  of  red,  green,  blue 
and  white,  the  stripes  being  two  or  three  inches  wide.  They  are 
made  in  the  city  of  Ouram1  and  in  Tenez*  in  the  kingdom  of 
Tremecem,  in  Bona3  and  Estora4  of  the  kingdom  of  Bogia,  and 
also  in  TunezS  and  in  other  parts  of  Berbery.  This  is  the 
principal  merchandise  used  for  the  barter  of  gold  in  Axem, 
besides  other  articles  of  less  value. 

To  continue  our  description  of  the  Serra  de  Santa  Apolonia; 
it  is  not  as  high  as  the  ignorant  may  imagine,  but  consists  of 
eight  or  ten  hills  of  reasonable  height  on  the  coast,  covered  with 
woods.  However,  because  the  rest  of  the  country  is  very  low 
these  hills  seem  quite  high.  He  who  leaves  Cabo  das  Palmas 
for  the  castle  of  S.  Jorze  da  Mina  should  sail  E  by  N ;  at  130 
leagues  along  the  route  he  will  find  the  Serra  de  Santa  Apolonia 
opposite  him;  in  order  not  to  lose  his  way  his  correct  course 
will  lie  outside  the  bay. 

Item.  The  Serra  de  Santa  Apolonia  and  Cabo  das  Tres 
Pontas6  lie  NW  by  W  and  SE  by  E  and  they  occupy  fifteen 
leagues  of  the  route.  One  may  anchor  opposite  this  Serra  in 
twenty  fathoms  on  a  muddy  bottom  a  league  from  the  shore. 
Twelve  leagues  beyond  this  Serra  is  an  islet  close  to  the  main¬ 
land;  it  is  very  rugged  and  white  with  the  guano  of  birds. 
A  little  over  half  a  league  from  this  islet  is  an  island  near  to  the 
coast ;  this  island  has  a  tree  in  its  centre  and  on  the  side  on  which 
the  sea  beats  it  is  of  a  reddish  colour.  From  there  to  Cabo  das 
Tres  Pontas  is  three  leagues.  I  do  not  know  why  this  cape  was 
called  thus,  for  there  are  six  or  seven  points,  on  all  of  which  the 
sea  beats ;  they  are  all  of  broken  rock,  and  he  who  doubles  the 

1  I.e.  Oran:  cf.  Leo  Africans,  op.  eit.  book  iv,  p.  676. 

1  Cf.  Leo  Africanus,  op.  cit.  p.  680.  J  Cf.  ibid.  p.  709. 

*  I.e.  Store  in  Argelia  in  the  province  of  Constantina,  to  the  northwest  of 
PhilippcviUe. 

*  Cf.  Leo  Africanus,  op.  at.  p.  719.  ‘  I.e.  Cape  Three  Points. 


GOLD  COAST 


Il8 

central  point  doubles  them  all.  The  landmarks  of  this  cape  are 
that  the  coast  there  turns  to  the  NE  and  that  its  latitude  is 
4°  30'  Nx.  The  pilot  or  captain  who  is  ignorant  of  this  country 
should  observe  the  trend  of  the  coast  and  he  will  find  that  it 
follows  two  directions:  from  Cabo  das  Tres  Pontas  to  Serra  de 
Santa  Apolonia  it  lies  NW  by  W  and  SE  by  E ;  and  from  there 
it  trends  NE,  the  latitude  increasing. 

Item.  From  Cabo  das  Tres  Pontas  to  the  islets  of  Anda2  is 
four  leagues ;  the  coast  runs  SW  and  NE,  and  these  islands  are 
very  close  to  the  shore;  in  the  same  neighbourhood  there  are 
some  red  cliffs.  The  region  of  Anda  extends  for  seven  or  eight 
leagues ;  it  contains  a  gold  mine,  which  although  not  very  large, 
yields  20,000  doubloons  or  more ;  the  gold  is  taken  to  be  bartered 
at  the  Castle  of  S.  Jorze  da  Mina  and  at  the  fortress  of  Axem 
of  which  we  have  spoken  above.  The  negroes  of  this  country 
live  on  millet,  fish  and  yams,  together  with  a  little  meat;  they 
are  naked  from  the  waist  up,  are  uncircumcised  and  heathen, 
but,  God  willing,  they  will  soon  become  Christians. 

Item.  The  islet  of  Anda  and  the  Rio  de  Sam  Joham^  lie  SW 
and  NE  and  occupy  eight  leagues  of  the  route.  This  river  is  very 
small  and  narrow ;  there  is  only  a  fathom  and  a  half  at  its  mouth 
at  high  tide,  and  its  mouth  cannot  be  seen  until  one  is  quite 
close  to  it.  There  is  here  a  town  called  Samaa*  of  some  500 
inhabitants,  where  the  first  gold  in  this  country  was  obtained  in 
barter,  and  it  was  at  that  time  called  Mina.  It  was  discovered 
at  the  bidding  of  King  Afonso  V  by  Joham  de  Santarem  and 
Pedro  d’Escobar5,  knights  of  his  household,  in  the  month  of 
January  of  the  year  of  Our  Lord  1471.  These  captains  carried 
as  pilots  a  certain  Alvaro  Estevez,  an  inhabitant  of  the  town  of 
Lagos,  and  a  certain  Martim  Estevez,  citizen  of  Lisbon,  Alvaro 
Estevez  being  the  man  most  skilled  in  his  profession  in  Spain 
at  that  time.  The  landmark  of  the  Rio  de  S.  Joham  and  of  the 

1  Actually  40  46'  N.  *  Abokori  Islet  (?). 

i  Pra  River.  It  enters  the  sea  in  Shama  Bay. 

4  I.e.  Shama  which,  to-day,  has  a  population  of  about  2400  {vide  Africa 
Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  337). 

5  These  men,  like  Sceiro  da  Costa,  were  chosen  by  Fem3o  Gomes  to 
forward  the  exploration  of  West  Africa.  Pedro  d’Escobar  subsequently 
accompanied  Diogo  CSo  to  the  Congo  and  acted  as  one  of  Vasco  da  Gama’s 
pilots  on  his  first  voyage  to  India. 


CASTLE  OF  S.  JORZE  DA  MINA  II9 

town  of  Samaa  is  a  very  large  bay  over  two  leagues  in  circuit  and 
a  good  league  across  from  point  to  point ;  almost  in  the  centre  of 
the  bay  is  the  mouth  of  the  river.  This  bay  is  full  of  shallows 
and  a  ship  should  anchor  in  ten  or  twelve  fathoms  on  a  clean 
sandy  bottom  a  league  from  the  shore  and  not  go  farther  in. 

Item.  From  the  bay  of  Samaa  to  the  village  of  Torto  is  three 
leagues;  the  route  lies  WSW  and  ENE.  The  lord  of  this  village 
was  squint-eyed,  hence  its  name.  It  has  a  great  reef  of  rock  on 
which  the  sea  breaks  violently1,  running  more  than  half  a  league 
into  the  sea,  so  that  one  should  keep  well  out.  From  here  to  the 
castle  of  S.  Jorze  da  Mina  is  three  leagues. 


Chapter  v 

Concerning  the  Castle  of  S.  Jorze  da  Mina  and 
when  it  was  built. 

In  the  paragraph  before  last  we  related  how  the  excellent  prince, 
King  Afonso  V  ordered  the  discovery  of  Mina  and  what  captains 
and  pilots  he  sent  for  the  purpose.  We  must  now  tell  how  his 
son  the  most  serene  prince,  King  John  of  Portugal  after  the 
death  of  his  father  ordered  the  foundation  of  the  Castle  of 
S.  Jorze  da  Mina.  At  the  bidding  of  this  magnanimous  prince 
it  was  built  by  Dieguo  d’Azambuja*,  a  knight  of  his  household 

*  Kassi  Reefs  (?)  (vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  X,  p.  338). 

*  John  II  lost  no  time  in  promoting  Portugal's  Africa  enterprise  on  his 
accession  in  1481.  Two  of  the  first  things  he  did  were  to  give  orders  for  the 
completion  of  the  fort  of  Arguim  (begun  in  Alfonso's  reign)  and  authorise 
the  construction  of  another  at  Mina  (i.e.  Elmina  Castle)  for  the  purpose, 
mainly,  of  organising  the  gold  traffic  of  that  region.  This  second  undertaking 
was  regarded  by  many  of  the  members  of  his  Council  as  untimely  and  doomed 
to  failure  on  the  grounds  of  climate,  distance  from  Portugal  and  the  in¬ 
calculable  attitude  of  the  negro.  Notwithstanding,  John  went  ahead  with  his 
plans  and  entrusted  the  execution  of  them  to  Diogo  d’Azambuja  "who 
combined  the  aptitudes  of  a  diplomat,  a  general  and  an  engineer”  (vide 
E.  Prestage,  op.  cit.  p.  199).  The  work  of  building  the  fort  began  almost 
immediately  after  his  arrival  in  1482:  in  fact,  within  twenty  days  the  central 
tower  was  sufficiently  near  completion  to  be  available  for  defensive  purposes. 
(This  speed  was  made  possible  by  the  fact  that  the  stones  for  the  tower  had 
been  cut  and  fashioned  in  Portugal.)  Azambuja  remained  at  Mina  for  two 
and  a  half  years,  by  which  time  the  trade  of  the  fort  was  enjoying  the  prosperity 
alluded  to  in  Pacheco's  account.  In  2486  John  II  bestowed  on  Mina  the 
status  of  municipality  and  added  “Lord  of  Guinea”  to  his  titles. 


120 


THE  MINA  FACTORY 


and  High  Commander  of  the  Order  of  S.  Bento.  On  the  ist  of 
January  in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  1482  he  took  with  him  nine 
caravels,  each  with  its  captain,  very  honourable  men,  under  his 
command,  together  with  two  ureas  of  400  tons  laden  with  lime 
and  building  stone  and  other  material  for  this  work.  1  here  was 
much  trouble  with  the  negroes,  who  wished  to  prevent  the  work, 
but  it  was  finally  finished,  despite  them,  with  all  diligence  and 
zeal,  and  it  was  necessary  for  the  refuge  and  defence  of  all  of  us. 
At  a  later  date  the  same  King  John,  seeing  that  this  was  necessary, 
ordered  the  work  to  be  added  to.  This,  as  we  know,  was  the 
first  stone  building  in  the  region  of  the  Ethiopias  of  Guinea  since 
the  creation  of  the  world.  Through  this  fortress  trade  so  greatly 
increased  by  the  favour  of  Our  Lord  that  170,000  doubloons 
of  good  fine  gold,  and  sometimes  much  more,  are  yearly  brought 
thence  to  these  realms  of  Portugal ;  it  is  bartered  from  the  negro 
merchants  who  bring  it  thither  from  distant  lands.  These 
merchants  belong  to  various  tribes ;  the  Bremus1 *,  Atis 3,  Hacanys  3 5, 
Boroes*,  Mandinguas  5,  Cacres6,  Andeses  or  Souzos7,  and  many 
others  which  I  omit  for  the  sake  of  brevity.  In  exchange  they 
take  away  much  merchandise,  such  as  “lanbens,”  which  is  the 
principal  article  of  commerce  (we  described  this  in  the  ninth 
paragraph  of  the  fourth  chapter  of  this  second  book),  red  and 
blue  cloth,  brass  bracelets,  handkerchiefs,  corals,  and  certain 
red  shells  which  they  prize  as  we  prize  precious  stones;  white 
wine  is  also  greatly  prized,  and  blue  beads,  which  they  call 
“coris,”  and  many  other  articles  of  various  kinds.  These  people 
have  hitherto  been  heathen,  but  some  of  them  have  now  become 
Christians;  I  speak  of  those  who  dwell  near  the  castle,  for  the 
merchants  come  from  far  and  have  not  the  same  intercourse 
with  us  as  these  neighbours  and  accordingly  continue  in  their 

1  The  Ebrid  tribes  of  the  Ivory  Coast  (?). 

1  The  Atti£  tribes  located  inland  from  the  Ebri<  tribes  (?). 

5  I.e.  the  Akans  who  at  the  present  time  inhabit  both  Gold  Coast  and 
Ashanti  territory  (vide  A.  W.  Cardinall,  The  Gold  Coast,  1931,  p.  9). 

4  The  natives  of  the  Bour£  gold-mining  region  in  the  upper  Niger  (?). 

5  Vide  book  1,  chap.  24,  p.  73  note. 

‘  I  cannot  find  this  name,  even  in  a  modified  form,  either  in  geographical 
or  in  ethnographical  sources. 

1  The  Susu  (or  Soso  or  Soussou)  peoples  of  the  Fouta  Djallon  Mountains 
(vide  M.  Delafosse,  op.  cit.  p.  55  et  passim). 


TRADE  AT  MINA 


121 


false  idolatry.  The  profit  of  this  trade  is  five  for  one,  or  more, 
but  the  country  is  much  subject  to  fever,  and  white  men  often 
die  here.  The  latitude  of  this  castle  is  50  30'  N  of  the  Equator1 * *, 
and  on  a  clear  night  one  can  see  the  Pole  Star  elevated  the  same 
number  of  degrees  above  the  horizon.  For  a  clearer  under¬ 
standing  we  have  given  here  a  painting  from  sight  of  the  castle, 
as  it  appears  at  the  present  time.  Here  there  is  an  abundance 
of  fish,  upon  which  the  negroes  live’,  but  they  keep  few  cattle; 
however,  there  are  many  wild  beasts  such  as  ounces,  elephants, 
buffaloes,  gazelles  and  many  other  kinds,  and  also  birds  of 
various  kinds,  some  of  them  being  very  beautiful.  The  negroes 
in  this  country  go  about  naked,  save  for  a  loin-cloth  or  a  piece 
of  striped  cloth,  which  they  consider  a  very  noble  garment.  They 
live  on  millet  and  palm-wine  3  (though  they  prefer  our  wine) 
with  fish  and  a  little  game*.  Our  lord  the  King  sends  out  yearly 
twelve  small  vessels  laden  with  merchandise ;  these  bring  back 
to  this  realm  the  gold  which  the  factor  of  his  Highness  obtains 
there  by  barter.  Besides  these  vessels,  three  or  four  ships  go 
out  laden  with  provisions,  wine  and  other  articles  which  are 
needed  there.  The  merchants  who  bring  the  gold  to  this  fortress 
bring  no  asses  or  beasts  of  burden  to  carry  away  the  merchandise, 
which  they  buy  for  three  times  and  more  its  value  in  Portugal. 
Our  people  who  are  sent  out  by  the  most  serene  King  in  his 
ships  buy  slaves*  200  leagues  beyond  the  casde,by*  rivers  where 
there  is  a  very  large  city  called  Beny4 5,  whence  they  are  brought 
thither  [to  Mina?].  What  we  have  said  of  this  is  sufficient  for 
our  purpose,  [which]  solely  concerns  the  commerce*  of  our  lord 
the  King  5. 

1  Actually  50  os'  N. 

*  The  text  is  either  slightly  corrupt  or  has  small  lacunae  at  these  points. 

s  Vide  Roger  Barlow,  op.  cit.  p.  106,  for  a  description  of  the  method  of 
collecting  and  making  this  wine. 

*  Vide  book  n,  chap.  7. 

5  Judging  from  Pacheco’s  reference  higher  up  to  a  painting  of  the  castle 
of  La  Mina  it  would  seem  as  though  the  copyist  forgot  to  insert  the  words 
"  aqui  maps  ”  at  this  juncture. 


122 


Chapter  vi 

Concerning  the  routes  and  landmarks  beyond  the 
Castle  of  S.  Jorze  da  Mina. 

We  may  well  speak  of  the  things  of  Ethiopia  since  we  have  seen 
them,  for  before  we  had  experience  of  them  it  was  only  with 
great  difficulty  that  we  could  believe  what  some  writers  related 
concerning  them.  Since  we  have  described  the  coast  in  due 
order,  together  with  some  part  of  the  interior,  we  will  proceed 
on  our  way  and  inform  our  readers  how  that  three  leagues  beyond 
the  Castle  of  S.  Jorze  at  the  end  of  the  bay  there  is  a  promontory 
which  we  call  Cabo  do  Cor^o1 ;  its  extremity  is  round  and  has 
a  single  tree  on  it,  which  can  only  be  seen  when  one  is  near  the 
shore.  It  can  be  seen  in  our  drawing  of  the  castle  given  above. 

Item.  Twenty  leagues  beyond  Cabo  do  Cor£0  is  a  pro¬ 
montory  which  we  call  Cabo  das  Redes2,  because  of  the  many 
nets  that  were  found  here  when  this  land  was  discovered.  This 
is  the  last  place  on  this  coast  where  we  know  that  there  is  gold, 
and  it  is  much  finer  gold  than  that  which  the  merchants  take 
to  be  bartered  at  Mina.  The  inhabitants  of  Cabo  das  Redes  take 
yearly  ten  or  twelve  thousand  doubloons  of  this  gold  to  barter 
at  the  Castle  of  S.  Jorze;  five  to  six  thousand  doubloons  of  it  is 
gold  of  23  carats,  one  carat  finer  than  the  other  gold  there. 
Cabo  do  Cor9o  and  Cabo  das  Redes  lie  SW  by  W  and  NE  by  E, 
and  they  occupy  twenty  leagues  of  the  route.  All  the  country 
between  these  two  capes  is  fairly  high  and  mountainous ;  midway 
along  there  are  three  fishing  settlements,  Fante3  the  Greater, 
Fante  the  Less  and  Sabuu  the  Less.  At  the  end  of  this  rough 
hill  country  lies  Cabo  das  Redes.  The  negroes  of  this  country 
speak  the  same  language  as  those  of  Mina,  and  their  word  for 
gold  is  “vyqua.” 

Item.  As  soon  as  you  have  passed  the  high  country  in  which 
Cabo  das  Redes  is  located  the  land  becomes  very  low  again  and 

1  I.e.  Queen  Anne  Point. 

*  Fetta  Point  (vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  345). 

5  Fetta,  located  at  the  head  of  Fetta  Bay. 


VOLTA  RIVER  AND  BEYOND 


123 

the  littoral  is  entirely  composed  of  beach.  Five  leagues  inland 
a  single  high  mountain1  rises  from  the  lowland :  it  is  the  land¬ 
mark  for  Cabo  das  Redes  and  we  call  it  “  Pam  de  Nao.”  Twenty 
leagues  beyond  this  mountain  is  the  Rio  da  Volta3,  which  is 
fairly  large.  Cabo  das  Redes  and  this  river  lie  E  and  W.  This 
coast  is  densely  wooded,  but  in  the  flat  country  the  woodland 
is  sparse  and  thin,  growing  in  clumps.  This  region  is  called 
Mumu.  The  negroes  of  this  country  are  evil  and  eat  men,  and 
hitherto  we  have  had  no  traffic  with  them. 


Chapter  vii 

Concerning  the  country  beyond  Rio  da  Volta . 

Item.  From  Rio  da  Volta,  about  which  we  have  spoken 
above,  to  Cabo  de  S.  Paulo^  is  ten  leagues ;  they  lie  NW  by  W 
and  SE  by  E.  The  land  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  cape  is 
very  low  and  has  a  long  spit  of  sand  running  far  out  into  the  sea. 
He  who  leaves  Mina  for  this  part  should  stand  three  or  four 
leagues  out  to  sea  from  Cabo  do  Cor90  and  sail  ENE  and  he 
will  come  to  the  Rio  da  Volta,  forty-five  leagues  along  the  route. 

Item.  Cabo  de  S.  Paulo  and  Rio  do  Laguo4  lie  ENE  and 
WSW  and  occupy  sixty-five  leagues  of  the  route.  All  the  country 
between  them  is  very  low5,  with  clumps  of  woodland,  and  the 
shore  is  composed  entirely  of  beach.  There  are  on  this  coast 
certain  villages,  trees  and  landmarks  which  some  books  of 
navigation  mention,  but  I  omit  them  because  they  are  difficult 
to  recognise.  The  pilot  who  sails  from  Mina  to  the  Rio  do  Laguo 
should  make  for  Cabo  de  S.  Paulo  and  then  sail  ENE  along  the 
coast ;  in  this  way  he  will  make  this  river’s  mouth,  which  is  very 
small.  The  channel  has  two  fathoms  at  high  tide,  but  its  entrance 

1  Akem  Peak  (?)  (vide  Africa  Pilot ,  Part  I,  p.  345). 

*  It  is  still  called  by  this  name. 

3  I.e.  Cape  St  Paul.  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  354. 

4  This  is  not  so  much  a  river  as  a  passage  “6  miles  long  connecting  Lagos 
lagoon  with  the  sea  ”  (vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  1,  p.  360). 

5  Cf.  ibid.  p.  351. 


124 


NIGER  DELTA 


is  very  dangerous,  with  shallows  of  sand  on  which  the  sea  breaks 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  so  that  the  channel  is  scarcely 
seen ;  only  small  vessels  of  thirty  to  thirty-five  tons  can  enter  it. 
Once  inside  the  mouth  it  broadens  out  into  a  great  lake  over 
two  leagues  wide  and  as  many  long.  Twelve  or  thirteen  leagues 
up  this  river  is  a  very  large  city  called  Geebuu x,  surrounded  by 
a  great  moat.  The  river  of  this  country  in  our  time  is  called 
Agusale*,  and  the  trade  is  mainly  in  slaves  (who  are  sold  for 
twelve  or  fifteen  brass  bracelets  each)  but  there  is  some  ivory. 
The  latitude  of  the  river  is  yc  45'  N  of  the  Equator*. 

Item.  Rio  do  Laguo  and  Rio  Primeiro  lie  W  by  N  and  E  by  S 
and  occupy  twenty-five  leagues  of  the  route.  Rio  Primeiro4  has 
a  fairly  wide  mouth  half  a  league  across,  with  a  dense  wood  on 
its  SE  side.  Four  leagues  beyond  this  river  are  three  canals, 
and  the  coast  of  these  canals  along  the  sea  to  the  Rio  Primeiro 
is  all  mud,  there  being  no  sand.  This  country  yields  no  trade 
or  profit.  The  w'hole  of  the  territory  from  the  aforesaid  Rio  do 
Laguo  to  this  Rio  Primeiro  and  for  more  than  a  100  leagues? 
beyond  is  intersected  by  many  other  rivers,  so  that  it  is  cut  into 
islands.  It  is  greatly  subject  to  fever  and  is  very  hot  throughout 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  year,  because  it  is  so  near  the  orb  of  the 
sun ;  the  principal  winter  season  falls  in  the  months  of  August 
and  September,  when  there  is  much  rain6.  The  negroes  of  this 

*  I-c.  Abeokuta,  situated  36  miles  up  the  Ogun  River,  which  drains  into 
the  Lagos  lagoon.  Cf.  R.  Burton’s  description  in  Abeokuta  and  the  Camaroom 
Mountains,  pp.  69-70. 

*  I.e.  Ogun  River. 

3  The  mouth  of  the  lagoon  is  6°  35'  N. 

4  The  Africa  Pilot  speaks  of  no  river  between  the  entrance  to  the  Lagos 
lagoon  and  Benin  River.  There  are,  however,  one  or  two  openings  into  this 
lagoon  which  runs  parallel  to  this  stretch  of  coast. 

5  This  is  approximately  the  width  of  the  Niger  Delta  ( vide  Africa  Pilot, 
Part  1,  p.  368). 

6  scasons  the  year  in  this  country  are  divisible  into  “dry”  and 
wet  rather  than  into  summer  and  winter.  December,  January,  February 

and  March  are  the  driest  months  and,  as  is  commonly  the  case  in  tropical 
latitudes,  the  driest  months  are  the  hottest.  At  Lagos  the  mean  monthly 
temperature  for  these  months  is  8i°  F.,  the  rainfall  aggregate  being  8  in.  out 
of  a  total  of  72  in.  per  annum.  The  season  of  heavy  rains  begins  towards  the 
end  of  April  and  continues  until  October,  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  annual 
amount  falling  in  the  three  months  of  May,  June  and  July.  The  lowest  mean 
monthly  temperature  is  recorded  in  August  (75  70  F.),  by  which  month  the 
cooling  influence  of  the  rains  is  at  its  maximum. 


BENIN 


*25 

country  are  idolaters  and  arc  circumcised  without  having  any 
law  or  reason  for  their  circumcision,  but  as  these  matters  are 
irrelevant  we  will  not  write  of  them. 

Item.  Beyond  the  Rio  Primeiro  is  the  Rio  Fermoso1;  they 
lie  NW  and  SE  and  occupy  five  leagues  of  the  route.  (Of  another 
small  river  here  I  do  not  speak  as  it  is  unnecessary.)  The  mouth 
of  the  Rio  Fermoso  is  very  large,  over  a  league  across  from 
point  to  point.  The  country  to  the  SE  of  it  has  a  grove  of  trees 
so  even  in  height  that  no  one  tree  seems  higher  than  another; 
inside  its  mouth  on  the  right  is  a  very  tall,  branching  tree  which 
greatly  overtops  the  rest,  and  beyond  this  tree  are  two  other 
trees  equally  tall.  The  mouth  of  this  river  is  shallow  and  full  of 
hidden  rocks;  the  depth  is  nowhere  greater  than  two  fathoms 
and  two  spans;  the  bottom  is  all  loose  mud,  so  that  a  ship  can 
stay  at  half  a  fathom  without  receiving  injury.  This  shallow 
extends  into  the  sea  nearly  two  leagues,  and  the  entrance  and 
the  channel  are  along  the  shore  to  the  left ;  when  you  are  inside 
the  points  where  the  channel  is  narrowest,  beyond  a  sandy  beach 
on  the  right,  you  can  anchor  at  the  mouth  of  a  large  canal  there, 
in  eight  fathoms.  By  this  channel  towards  the  sea  is  a  village 
called  Teebuu*  and  on  the  other  side  arc  some  more  villages. 
A  league  up  this  river  on  the  left  two  tributaries  enter  the  main 
stream :  if  you  ascend  the  second  of  these  for  twelve  leagues  you 
find  a  town  called  Huguatoo?,  of  some  2,000  inhabitants;  this 
is  the  harbour  of  the  great  city  of  Beny,  which  lies  nine  leagues 
in  the  interior  with  a  good  road  [between  them].  Small  ships 
of  fifty  tons  can  go  as  far  as  Huguatoo.  This  city  is  about  a 
league  long  from  gate  to  gate ;  it  has  no  wall  but  is  surrounded 
by  a  large  moat,  very  wide  and  deep,  which  suffices  for  its 
defence.  I  was  there  four  times.  Its  houses  are  made  of  mud- 

1  I.e.  Benin  River  {vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  pp.  369  et  seq.). 

*  The  Africa  Pilot  speaks  of  numerous  riparian  settlements,  but  their 
identification  with  Teebuu  is  uncertain.  S.  Pimentel  {op.  cit.  p.  284)  calls  it 
Atambane.  Fishtown  is  the  most  important  native  village  in  this  vicinity 
to-day. 

5  I.e.  Gwato  (6°  11'  N.,  5°  23'  E.),  the  Gurte  of  John  Pory,  op.  cit.  p.  78. 
Its  prosperity  appears  to  have  declined  with  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade, 
for  when  R.  Burton  visited  it  in  1862  Gwato  only  contained  “from  20  to  30 
inhabitations,  mostly  ruinous  but  sometimes  showing  traces  of  former 
splendour"  (“My  Wanderings  in  West  Africa,"  Fraser’s  Magazine,  1863, 
P-  275)- 


126 


KINGDOM  OF  BENIN 


walls  covered  with  palm  leaves.  The  kingdom  of  Beny  is  about 
eighty  leagues  long  and  forty  wide1 ;  it  is  usually  at  war  with  its 
neighbours  and  takes  many  captives,  whom  we  buy  at  twelve 
or  fifteen  brass  bracelets  each,  or  for  copper  bracelets  which  they 
prize  more1 ;  from  there  the  slaves  are  brought  to  the  castle  of 
S.  Jorze  da  Mina  where  they  are  sold  for  gold.  The  way  of  life 
of  these  people  is  full  of  abuses  and  witchcraft  and  idolatry, 
which  for  brevity’s  sake  I  omit. 

Item.  A  hundred  leagues  to  the  east  of  this  kingdom  of  Beny 
in  the  interior  we  know  of  a  land  which  in  our  time  has  a  king 
called  Licosaguou3 ;  he  is  said  to  be  lord  of  many  peoples  and 
very  powerful.  Close  by  is  another  great  lord  of  the  name  of 
Hooguanee4,  who  among  the  negroes  is  as  the  Pope  among  us. 
In  these  lands  there  is  black  pepper  much  stronger  than  that 
of  India*;  its  grain  is  almost  of  the  same  size,  but  whereas  the 


1  Cf.  O.  Dapper,  Naukeurige  Beschrijvinge  der  A frikaensche  Getcesten, 
1668,  book  II,  p.  122.  “How  far  the  Kingdom  of  Benin  extends  from  south 
to  north  is  as  yet  unknown,  as  some  places  lie  at  a  great  distance  from  each 
other,  being  separated  by  impenetrable  forests,  but  from  east  to  west,  it 
measures  about  a  hundred  (Dutch)  miles.”  Barbot,  writing  later,  in  1732, 
says :  “  its  extent  from  north  to  south  must  be  near  200  leagues  and  its  breadth 
from  east  to  west  about  125  leagues. (A  Description  of  the  Coasts  of  North 
and  South  Guinea,  p.  356). 

*  Bracelets  (“manilha”  in  Portuguese)  still  form  a  medium  of  change  in 
some  parts  of  Benin.  “It  is  said  that  in  some  cases  the  natives  are  so  parti¬ 
cular  that  they  test  the  manilha  by  its  sound  when  struck  together,  which  they 
do  behind  the  traders’  backs  and  that  therefore  the  mixing  of  the  metal  has 
to  be  carefully  attended  to”  (H.  L.  Roth,  Great  Benin:  Its  Customs,  Arts  and 
Horrors,  p.  5,  note). 

3  According  to  Dapper  (op.  cit.  book  II,  p.  121)  the  kingdom  of  Benin  was 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  kingdoms  of  Istonna  and  Forkado  or  Ouwerre. 

*  The  Ogan6  of  John  Alfonso  de  Aveiro  (vide  Barros,  op.  cit.  Decade  I, 
book  III,  chap.  4).  The  account  which  he  brought  back  from  Benin  of  this 
monarch  tallied  so  well  with  the  stories  of  Prester  John  which  had  been  brought 
to  the  peninsula  by  Abyssinian  priests  that  the  king,  John  II,  immediately 
began  to  plan  how  he  might  get  into  direct  touch  with  Ogand,  for  he  saw  how 
greatly  his  double  object  of  spreading  the  Christian  faith  and  extending  his 
commerce  by  opening  the  road  to  the  Indies  would  be  furthered  by  an 
alliance  with  such  a  sovereign.  Accordingly  he  determined  that  both  by  land 
and  sea  attempts  should  be  made  to  reach  his  country.  The  expeditions  of 
Bartholomew  Dias  and  of  Pedro  de  Covilham  were  the  result. 

}  Barros  (op.  cit.  Decade  1,  book  III,  chap.  3)  describes  the  pepper  of  Benin 
thus:  “tailed  pepper  [so  called]  because  it  is  different  from  that  which  comes 
from  India. .  .having  attached  to  it  part  of  the  peduncle  on  which  it  grows.” 
It  is  actually  the  dried  fruit  of  Piper  Clusii,  a  plant  widely  distributed  in 
tropical  Africa. 


HINTERLAND  OF  BENIN 


127 

Indian  grain  is  wrinkled  the  surface  of  this  pepper  is  smooth. 
In  the  mountains  and  woods  of  this  region  dwell  savage  men 
whom  the  negroes  of  Beny  call  “oosaa.”  They  are  very  strong 
and  are  covered  with  bristles  like  pigs;  their  nature  is  entirely 
human  except  that  instead  of  speaking  they  shout1.  I  have  heard 
their  shouts  at  night  and  possess  the  skin  of  one  of  these  savages. 
In  this  country  there  are  many  elephants  whose  tusks,  or  ivory 
as  we  call  it,  we  often  buy ;  there  are  also  many  ounces  and  other 
wild  beasts,  likewise  birds  of  kinds  so  different  from  those  of  our 
Europe  that  on  the  first  discovery  of  this  country  those  who  saw 
these  things  and  related  them  were  not  believed,  until  the  ex¬ 
perience  of  those  who  came  here  later  induced  belief.  A  hundred 
leagues  upstream  towards  the  source  of  the  Rio  Fermoso  is  a 
negro  country  called  Opuua.  Here  there  is  much  pepper  and 
ivory  and  some  slaves.  The  latitude  of  Rio  Fermoso  is  70  north 
of  the  Equator^ ;  the  tide  flows  NW  and  SE,  contrary  to  those 
of  Spain.  The  people  of  Beny  and  its  neighbourhood  are  branded 
with  a  line  above  the  eyebrows* ;  it  is  their  distinguishing  mark 
as  none  of  the  other  negroes  have  it. 


Chapter  viii 

of  the  second  book  of  the  Esmeraldo  De  Situ  Orbis. 

This  description  of  Ethiopia  has  brought  us  two  liabilities;  in 
the  first  place  the  amount  of  time  spent  in  exploring  these 
provinces  and  lands  which  have  entailed  so  much  illness  and 

*  Vide  note  on  book  I,  chap.  33. 

1  Possibly  one  of  the  kingdoms  of  which  Dapper  speaks :  "the  kingdom  of 
Benin. .  .is  bordered  to  the  NW  by  the  kingdoms  of  Ulkami,  Jaboe,  Isago 
and  Oedobo;  to  the  north  by  that  of  Gaboe,  situated  about  an  eight  days’ 
journey  above  the  great  town  of  Benin”  (op.  cit.  book  II,  p.  121). 

3  Actually  its  mouth  is  50  46'  N. 

4  Cf.  Richard  Burton’s  account.  In  writing  of  the  tribal  marks  of  the 
people  of  Benin  he  says :  "  the  general  mark  was  a  tattoo  of  three  parallel  cuts 
about  long  and  placed  close  together  upon  both  checks. . . .  Some  added 
to  these. .  .vertical  lines  of  similar  marks  above  the  eyebrows. . (op.  cit. 
p.  411). 


128 


FORCADOS  RIVER 


ill-rewarded  labour1 ;  in  the  second  place  the  great  toil  of  com¬ 
posing  this  work  dealing  with  what  we  have  seen  in  these  lands. 
Therefore  we  must  needs  follow  the  order  of  the  coast  and 
describe  the  rivers,  bearing  witness  to  what  we  have  seen  and 
our  witness  is  true. 

Item.  Five  leagues  beyond  Rio  Fermoso  is  a  river  with  a 
fairly  large  mouth,  which  we  call  Rio  dos  Escravos3.  Two  slaves 
were  obtained  by  barter  there  when  it  was  discovered ;  hence  its 
name.  This  river  has  shallows  of  hard  sand  running  out  nearly 
a  league  into  the  sea,  with  two  and  a  half  fathoms  of  water  over 
them  and  three  fathoms  at  the  deepest.  It  is  a  very  dangerous 
place,  and  a  prudent  man  will  avoid  it;  there  is  neither  trade 
here  nor  anything  else  worthy  of  mention,  so  that  we  need  not 
waste  time  in  speaking  of  it. 

Item.  Five  leagues  beyond  Rio  dos  Escravos  is  another  river 
called  Rio  dos  Forcados3 ;  its  name  is  due  to  the  fact  that  when 
it  was  discovered  many  large  birds  were  found  here  with  tails 
forked  like  those  of  swallows.  This  river  has  a  large  mouth,  and 
to  the  NW  it  has  a  sand  shallow  with  about  two  fathoms  of  water, 
and  on  the  SE  it  has  a  shoal  of  rock  on  which  the  sea  breaks ;  in 
between  these  is  the  channel,  which  has  a  mud  bottom,  with 
three  and  a  half  fathoms,  and  at  high  tide  four  fathoms.  He  who 
has  to  enter  here  should  keep  closer  to  the  shallows  on  the  SE 
than  to  those  on  the  NW  in  order  to  enter  in  safety.  The  tide 
of  this  river  flows  NW  by  W  and  SE  by  E ;  its  latitude  is  5°  10'  N4. 
To  the  SE  there  is  a  large  wood,  its  landmark  being  two  trees 
taller  than  the  rest.  Whoever  enters  this  river  will  find  that  it 
branches  to  the  right  and  to  the  left;  five  leagues  up  the  left 
branch  is  a  place  of  barter3,  which  consists  chiefly  of  slaves  and 
cotton  cloths,  with  some  panther  skins,  palm-oil  and  some  blue 
shells  with  red  stripes  which  they  call  “  coris.”  These  and  other 
things  we  buy  there  for  brass  and  copper  bracelets ;  they  are  all 

1  The  translation  of  this  paragraph  is  of  necessity  rather  free  as  the  text 
is  very  corrupt. 

1  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  374. 

3  The  Forcados  River  is  the  most  useful  and  accessible  distributary  of  the 
Niger  Delta. 

*  The  latitude  of  Hughes  Point,  which  defines  the  entrance  on  the  north 
side,  is  5°  27'  N. 

3  Probably  Warri  or  some  place  in  the  vicinity. 


HINTERLAND  OF  THE  FORCADOS 


I29 

valuable  at  the  castle  of  S.  Jorze  da  Mina,  where  the  King’s 
factor  sells  them  to  the  negro  merchants  for  gold.  The  inhabitants 
along  this  river  are  called  Huela.  Farther  in  the  interior  is 
another  country  called  Subou1,  which  is  densely  populated ;  here 
there  is  a  fair  amount  of  pepper  of  the  kind  we  described  almost 
at  the  end  of  the  fifth  paragraph  of  the  seventh  chapter. 
Beyond  these  dwell  other  negroes  called  JosJ,  who  own  a  large 
country;  they  are  a  warlike  people  and  cannibals.  The  principal 
trade  of  this  country  is  in  slaves  and  some  ivory.  All  these 
regions  are  very  hot,  because  they  are  near  the  Equator.  The 
rivers  are  rife  with  fever  and  very  unhealthy  for  white  men, 
especially  in  the  winter  of  this  land,  which  begins  in  the  month 
of  May  and  lasts  till  the  end  of  September,  when  there  is  much 
rain;  it  is  especially  heavy  in  August,  which  is  the  depth  of 
winter  [sic]  throughout  Ethiopia.  During  this  season  and  in 
some  other  months  of  the  year  there  are  great  storms  of  thunder 
and  wind.  The  pilot  who  sees  such  a  storm  approaching  his  ship 
should  furl  sail,  for,  if  he  does  not,  the  furious  wind  these 
thunderstorms  bring  with  them  will  either  send  his  ship  to  the 
bottom  or  break  its  mast  and  rigging  and  carry  away  the  sails. 
He  who  would  sail  from  Mina  to  the  Rio  dos  Forcados  should 
sail  E  by  N ;  in  this  way  he  will  make  the  Rio  Fermoso,  which  is 
ten  leagues  on  this  side  of  the  Rio  dos  Forcados,  and  from  there 
he  must  coast  along  the  shore,  for  it  is  a  very  difficult  country 
to  distinguish.  This  is  the  direct  route  from  Mina  to  this  region 
[keeping]  outside  the  bay,  and  it  occupies  170  leagues  of  the 
route. 

Item.  Five  leagues  beyond  Rio  dos  Forcados  is  another  river 
called  Rio  dos  Ramos* ;  the  mouth  of  this  river  is  as  large  as  that 

1  I.c.  the  Sobo  country.  R.  Burton  describes  it  as  comprising  wide  lands 
north  and  northeast  of  Warri:  “the  word  applies  to  the  greatest  part  of  the 
country  between  Abo  on  the  Niger,  the  Wari  River  and  the  southern  branch 
of  the  Benin  which  bounds  it  on  the  north. ..”  ( Fraser's  Magazine,  1863, 
P-  145). 

*  I.e.  the  Ejos  or  Ejomen,  popularly  called  Joemen — “  a  large  and  influential 
tribe  [inhabiting]  the  banks  of  the  Escravos,  Broder,  Forcados,  Ramos  and 
Dodo  Rivers  extending  to  the  Nun  and  Brass  Rivers.. .  .They  are  almost 
always  at  war  with  the  Jakri  men,  because  like  these,  they  trade  for  oil  to  the 
Sobo  country. . .”  (R.  Burton,  Fraser's  Magazine,  1863,  pp.  145-6).  T.  J. 
Hutchinson  (Ten  Years'  Wanderings  among  the  Ethiopians,  p.  61)  calls  them 
cannibals.  5  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  X,  p.  383. 


HK 


9 


CAPE  FORMOSO 


130 

of  Rio  dos  Forcados  or  larger,  but  it  is  shallow  throughout,  with 
less  than  two  fathoms,  the  sea  breaking  frequently  along  the 
whole  of  this  bay.  Ships  making  for  Rio  dos  Forcados  have 
suffered  wreck  here,  for  they  passed  Rio  dos  Forcados  without 
recognising  it  and  entered  Rio  dos  Ramos  mistaking  it  for  the 
other  and  were  wrecked  on  the  bar.  The  inhabitants  of  this 
country  are  called  Jos  and  are  cannibals,  as  we  have  said.  There 
has  been  no  trade  here  so  far,  nor  do  we  know  if  there  is  any 
possibility  of  trade.  All  this  country  is  densely  populated  and 
thickly  wooded ;  the  interior  is  intersected  by  other  rivers  and 
all  the  land  of  this  river  and  of  Rio  dos  Forcados  is  formed 
into  islands,  the  inhabitants  communicating  by  canoes  made  of 
a  single  trunk. 

Item.  Rio  dos  Ramos  and  Cabo  Fermoso1 * *  lie  NNW  and 
SSE  and  occupy  twelve  leagues  of  the  route.  All  the  country 
between  the  cape  and  the  river  is  very  low  and  sparsely 
populated.  Cabo  Fermoso  has  a  very  low  spit*  which  runs  out 
to  sea  in  a  curving  fashion  a  good  five  leagues.  In  the  months 
of  July  and  August  the  currents  flow  past  here  with  such  force? 
that  a  ship  coming  here  in  these  months  should  keep  far  out 
from  land  if  it  is  making  for  Mina,  for  it  will  find  it  impossible 
to  sail  along  the  coast  owing  to  the  strength  of  the  currents 
flowing  SE.  The  two  sure  landmarks  of  this  cape  are  firstly,  that 
this  part  of  the  coast  trends  east  and  west  for  a  good  fifty  leagues, 
and  secondly,  that  its  latitude  is  50  50'  N4. 

1  “  Cape  Fonnoso  is  the  name  applied  to  the  wooded  tract  on  the  eastern 
aide  of  Nun  River  entrance  forming  the  southern  extension  of  the  delta  of 
the  Niger,  of  which  Palm  Point  is  the  extreme  ”  (Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  403). 
Pacheco  is  considerably  out  in  his  reckoning  of  the  distance  between  Ramos 
River  and  Cape  Fonnoso :  according  to  the  Pilot  figures  it  is  at  least  80  miles 
(i.e.  26  leagues  approximately — Portuguese  fashion). 

1  I.e.  Nun  bar — "one  of  the  worst  bars  of  the  Niger  delta,  probably  owing 
to  its  geographical  position,  the  coast  line  here  changing  its  direction  sharply, 
rendering  the  bar  fully  exposed  to  the  westward  as  well  as  to  the  southward. . . . 
The  bar  is  composed  of  a  semi-circular  belt  of  sand  connecting  the  western 
and  eastern  spits,  which  extend  southward  from  the  entrance  points  of  the 
river"  (Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  386). 

5  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  t,  pp.  34,  46. 

4  Actually  40 16'  N. 


*3* 


Chapter  ix 

Concerning  the  routes ,  landmarks  and  degrees 
[of  latitudes]  beyond  Cabo  Fermoso. 

Since  we  have  undertaken  the  heavy  task  of  describing  the 
benefits  conferred  by  past  princes  on  the  Kingdoms  of  Portugal 
by  the  discovery  of  Ethiopia,  which  was  before  totally  unknown 
to  us,  we  consider  ourselves  obliged  to  finish  the  work  we  have 
begun,  in  spite  of  railers,  back-biters  and  slanderers  who  blame 
what  is  well  done  and  are  unable  to  do  anything  well  themselves ; 
but  we  will  continue  our  work  and  leave  them  to  be  consumed 
in  their  envy. 

Item.  We  have  already  stated  that  the  coast  for  fifty  leagues 
beyond  Cabo  Fermoso  trends  east  and  west.  He  who  arrives 
here  going  east  will,  at  a  distance  of  a  league  and  a  half  from  the 
shore,  find  only  eight  or  ten  fathoms  and  a  mud  bottom.  Six 
or  seven  leagues  beyond  this  cape  is  a  river  which  has  not  a  very 
large  mouth,  called  Rio  de  Sam  Bento*.  Beyond  it  is  another 
river  called  Sant’  Ilefonso1;  five  leagues  [beyond3]  is  the  Rio 
de  Santa  Barbara4,  and  six  leagues  beyond  this  is  another  river 
called  Rio  Pcqueno5.  These  four  rivers  are  rather  small  and  we 
have  not  hitherto  traded  in  them;  we  only  know  that  their 
inhabitants  arc  called  Jos  and  are  cannibals.  This  coast  lies  in  the 
same  parallel  as  Cabo  Fermoso,  that  is,  east  and  west. 

Item.  Eight  leagues  beyond  Rio  Pequeno  to  the  east  is  a  very 
large  river  called  Rio  Real6,  the  mouth  of  which  is  five  leagues 
across.  This  river  in  our  time  has  two  entrances.  One  of  these 
is  in  the  middle  of  its  mouth  between  two  sand-spits  and  follows 
a  north-south  direction;  it  is  a  gunshot  in  width  and  at  its 
deepest  has  3^  fathoms  at  high  tide.  Sailing  thence  inland  to 
a  village  on  the  SE  shore  you  will  find  seven  and  eight  fathoms. 

Item.  The  other  entrance  [to  this  river7]  lies  beyond  and 

*  Brass  River  (?).  *  St  Nicholas  River  (?). 

5  Lacuna :  only  the  word  we  have  inserted,  or  its  equivalent,  seems  to  be 
missing,  however. 

4  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  408.  5  Sombreiro  River  (?). 

6  I.e.  the  combined  estuary  of  the  New  Calabar  and  Bonny  Rivers. 

7  Lacuna :  it  seems  only  to  require  the  words  we  have  inserted. 


9-2 


132  LIFE  AND  HABITS  OF  THE  JOS 

runs  NW  and  SE;  it  is  a  good  league  wide  and  any  ship  can  tack 
against  the  wind  here  and  proceed  in  five  or  six  fathoms  to  a 
bank  of  sand  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  bay,  where  there  are 
three  fathoms;  this  is  the  shallowest  place.  To  sail  in  from  here 
you  must  make  for  a  sand-spit  on  the  right  and  within  this  spit 
you  can  anchor  opposite  the  mouth  of  a  creek  in  twelve  fathoms 
at  a  quarter  of  a  league  from  the  shore.  The  latitude  of  this  river 
is  5^  north1 * 3;  the  castle  of  S.  Jorac  da  Mina  and  this  river  lie  on 
the  same  parallel  of  latitude,  that  is,  east  and  west. 

Item.  The  people  of  this  river  are  called  Jos,  being  the  same 
as  those  of  whom  we  spoke  above,  and  they  are  all  cannibals.  At 
the  mouth  of  this  river  within  the  creek  above  mentioned  is  a 
very  large  village  of  some  2,000  inhabitants5,  where  much  salt  is 
made.  The  bigger  canoes  here,  made  from  a  single  trunk,  are 
the  largest  in  the  Ethiopias  of  Guinea;  some  of  them  are  large 
enough  to  hold  eighty  men,  and  they  come  from  a  hundred 
leagues  or  more  up  this  river  bringing  yams  in  large  quantities, 
which,  in  this  district,  are  very  good  and  nourishing ;  they  also 
bring  many  slaves,  cows,  goats  and  sheep.  Sheep  they  call 
"bozy.”  They  sell  all  this  [merchandise]  to  the  natives  of  the 
village  for  salt,  and  our  ships  buy  these  things  for  copper 
bracelets,  which  are  here  greatly  prized — more  than  those  of 
brass ;  for  eight  or  ten  bracelets  you  can  obtain  one  slave.  The 
negroes  of  this  country  are  all  naked,  wearing  only  copper  neck¬ 
laces  an  inch  thick;  they  carry  daggers  like  those  of  the  white 
Moors  of  Berbery.  They  are  warlike  and  are  rarely  at  peace. 

Item.  Three  leagues  beyond  Rio  Real  is  a  small  river  called 
Rio  de  S.  Domingos^ ;  and  four  leagues  beyond  this  is  another 
river,  very  small,  called  after  Pero  dc  Sintra4.  Three  leagues 
farther  on  are  two  very  small  rivers,  but  as  there  is  no  trade 
there  I  will  not  name  them. 

1  Fouche  Point,  which  bounds  the  estuary  on  the  west,  is  4®  24'  N. 

*  Bonny  (?). 

3  Andoni  River  (?). 

4  By  its  location  it  appears  to  be  identifiable  with  the  Opobo  (or  Imo)  River, 

but  it  is  by  no  means  a  small  river,  for  its  mouth  is  ii  miles  wide.  It  is  to  be 
noticed  that  from  this  point  onwards  Pacheco's  description  of  the  coast 
becomes  very  much  less  detailed.  For  instance,  in  passing  from  this  river  to 
the  Cameroons  River  he  says  nothing  about  the  intervening  100  miles  of 
coast  line  which  includes  such  large  rivers  as  the  Calabar  and  Rio  del  Rcy. 


133 


Chapter  x 

Concerning  the  Serra  de  Fernam  do  Poo. 

Three  things  chiefly  are  to  be  regarded  in  the  description  of  a 
land ;  first,  the  landmarks  and  shape  of  the  coast,  so  that  it  may 
be  recognised :  and  if  it  cannot  be  recognised  by  this  first  means, 
doubts  may  be  removed  by  the  second,  namely,  the  trend  of  the 
coast  one  is  in  search  of,  whether  north  and  south  or  east  and 
west  or  NE  and  SW,  for  if  the  direction  of  the  land  then  met 
with  is  the  same  as  that  sought  for,  then  they  will  be  one  and 
the  same.  If  this  method  of  identification  fails,  then  observe  the 
degrees  of  latitude  of  the  place  encountered,  whether  they  be 
north  or  south  of  the  Equator,  and  if  they  tally,  both  those 
of  the  place  you  are  in  and  of  the  place  you  are  seeking,  then 
the  degrees  being  all  one  and  the  landmarks1  being  in  agreement, 
you  will  know  for  certain  where  you  are.  Because  this  island 
with  its  mountain  range  is  five  leagues  beyond  the  last  of  the 
four  rivers  of  which  we  spoke  and  because  it  is  of  a  different 
shape  from  anything  in  the  whole  of  Guinea,  we  have  placed  a 
picture  of  it  here.  And  from  Cabo  Fermoso,  as  we  have  said  in 
the  first  paragraph  of  the  ninth  chapter  of  this  second  book,  the 
coast  runs  east  and  west.  This  mountain  and  island  were  dis¬ 
covered  by  Fernam  do  Poo,  a  knight  of  the  household  of  King 
Afonso  V,  and  received  the  name  of  its  discoverer2 ;  it  is  situated 
4°  north  of  the  Equator.  This  mountain  is  very  high  and  in 
clear  weather  it  can  be  seen  twenty-five  and  thirty  leagues  away?. 

*  Lacuna. 

*  Jolo  dc  Santarem  and  Pedro  d’Escobar,  knights  of  King  Alfonso’s  house¬ 
hold  who  went  out  in  1470,  on  Fem3o  Gomes’s  account,  to  explore  the  coast 
beyond  Cape  Palmas,  discovered,  so  it  is  generally  believed,  the  Islands  of 
S.  Thom6,  Anno  Bom  and  Principe :  whether  Ilha  Formosa,  discovered  by 
Fernam  do  Po,  whose  name  it  afterwards  received,  was  discovered  then  or, 
as  some  have  supposed,  in  i486  during  Jo5o  Alfonso  d’Aveiro’s  expedition 
to  the  King  of  Benin,  we  possess  no  evidence  to  show.  The  fact  that  Pacheco 
calls  him  a  “knight  of  the  household  of  King  Afonso  V”  suggests  that  the 
discovery'  was  prior  to  the  year  of  that  king’s  death,  namely  1481. 

1  Santa  Isabel  peak  (10,190'  above  sea  level)  “is  visible  from  westward 
on  a  clear  day,  or  after  a  tornado,  at  a  distance  of  100  miles,  but  generally 
the  weather  is  so  hazy  that  it  is  obscured  beyond  quite  a  short  distance  ” 
( Africa  Pilot,  Part  H,  p.  65,  8th  edition). 


COUNTRY  OF  THE  CAMEROONS 


134 

The  island  at  the  mouth  of  this  bay1  is  densely  populated  and 
grows  a  lot  of  sugar-cane ;  the  mainland  is  five  leagues  distant. 
A  ship  coming  to  this  land  for  anchorage  will  be  in  15  fathoms 
a  half  a  league  from  the  shore.  Slaves  may  be  bartered  here  for 
eight  or  ten  copper  bracelets  apiece.  In  this  country  there  are 
many  large  elephants,  whose  tusks  (which  we  call  ivory)  we  buy, 
a  large  tusk  for  a  copper  bracelet ;  in  addition  there  is  here  a  fair 
abundance  of  malagueta,  of  a  good  and  fine  quality.  Ethiopia 
has  many  things  which  yield  a  good  profit  when  brought  to 
Portugal.  The  inhabitants  of  this  land3  are  called  “  Caaboo3,” 
and  fifty  leagues  inland  is  a. .  .4  language  called  “  Bota.” 

A  gut  map  a. 

Item.  All  the  sea-coast  from  this  Serra  de  Femam  do  Poo 
to  Cabo  de  Lopo  Gonfalvez?,  a  distance  of  eighty  leagues,  is 
densely  populated  and  thickly  wooded.  The  sea  is  very  deep, 
thirty  and  forty  fathoms  half  a  league  from  the  shore,  and 
contains  many  whales  and  other  fish.  This  country  is  very  near 
the  Equator,  which  the  ancients  declared  to  be  uninhabitable 
but  experience  has  shown  us  that  this  is  not  so. 

Item.  Two  leagues  beyond  this  Serra  de  Femam  do  Poo  to 
the  NE  is  the  Rio  dos  CamarSes6,  where  there  is  good  fishing, 
but  we  have  not  yet  had  any  trade  with  the  natives  of  this 
locality.  Great  tornadoes  accompanied  by  very  violent  winds 
are  experienced  on  this  coast,  and  as  a  safeguard  you  should  furl 
sail  while  they  last?. 

Item.  Twenty  leagues  S  by  E  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  dos 
Camar5es  is  the  Serra  Guerreira8,  which  extends  for  rather  more 
than  a  league  in  length,  half  a  league  from  the  coast.  All  this 
country  is  well-wooded  and  its  latitude  is  3^°  N  of  the  Equator. 

’  I.e.  Bight  of  Biafra.  *  I.e.  the  mainland. 

5  These  people  and  their  neighbours,  the  Bota,  are  probably  members  of 
the  Bantu  race  inhabiting  the  Cameroons  country  along  with  the  so-called 
pygmies. 

4  Text  corrupt.  The  original  may  have  contained  something  as  follows: 
** . .  .another  people,  called  in  their  language  ‘  Bota.”' 

5  I.e.  Cape  Lopez,  the  southern  limit  of  the  Bight  of  Biafra. 

*  I.e.  Cameroons  River.  7  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  I,  p.  36. 

1  The  Mount  Elephant  range  (?).  It  is  located  approximately  30  N.  and 
60  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Cameroons  River,  but  is  about  8  miles  inland  and  some 
17  miles  long. 


GABON  RIVER 


135 

Item.  Twenty-five  leagues  beyond  the  Serra  Guerreira  to 
the  SE  is  another  range,  much  smaller,  and  low,  called  Serra 
Bota1,  but,  although  its  population  is  fairly  dense,  we  have  not 
as  yet  heard  of  any  trade  there. 

Item.  Beyond  Serra  Bota  is  a  small  bay  surrounded  by  woods 
and  at  its  mouth  there  is  a  small  low-lying  island  called  Corisco3. 
The  distance  between  the  Serra  and  this  bay  is  twenty  leagues, 
the  route  lying  N  by  E  and  S  by  W.  The  island  is  almost  joined 
to  the  mainland. 

Item.  Seventeen  leagues  beyond  the  island  of  Corisco  is  a 
fairly  large  river  having  nine  fathoms  of  water  at  its  mouth  and 
in  its  channel.  It  is  called  Rio  do  GuabamS.  This  river  runs  far 
inland  and  brings  down  a  great  quantity  of  fresh  water  and  its 
territory  is  densely  populated,  but  we  have  no  knowledge  of  any 
trade  with  the  negroes  of  this  or  in  the  preceding  countries.  This 
river  and  the  island  of  Corisco  lie  N  by  E  and  S  by  W. 


Chapter  xi 

The  routes  and  landmarks  from  Rio  do  Guabam  to  Cabo 
de  Caterina,  which  is  also  called  Cabo  Primeiro. 

Experience  has  disabused  us  of  the  errors  and  fictions  which 
some  of  the  ancient  cosmographers  were  guilty  of  in  their 
description  of  land  and  sea;  for  they  declared  that  all  the 
equatorial  country  was  uninhabitable  on  account  of  the  heat  of 
the  sun.  We  have  proved  this  to  be  false,  for  beyond  the  Rio  do 
Guabam,  of  which  we  spoke  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  is  a 
low  promontory  which  we  call  Cabo  de  Lopo  Gonfalvez4  after 

1  The  Seven  Hills  (?).  Actually  these  hills  rise  to  a  greater  elevation  than 
Mount  Elephant,  2800  ft.  as  against  1700  ft. ;  the  fact  that  they  are  situated 
15  miles  inland,  however,  may  help  to  account  for  Pacheco's  statement  about 
their  being  much  smaller  and  lower  than  Serra  Guerreira. 

*  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  u,  p.  119.  The  name  “corisco”  (meaning  “light¬ 
ning  ”)  was  doubtless  conferred  upon  the  bay  on  account  of  the  frequency  of 
thunderstorms  in  this  locality. 

5  I.e.  Gabon  River,  which  is  more  of  an  estuary  than  a  river. 

4  Cape  Lopez  is  actually  the  northern  extremity  of  Lopez  (or  Mandji) 
Island,  formed  by  two  of  the  mouths  of  the  Ogowd  River. 


136  INHABITANTS  OF  THE  EQUATOR 

the  name  of  the  captain  who  discovered  it;  this  cape  and  the 
Rio  do  Guabam  lie  SW  and  S  and  NE  by  N  and  occupy  twenty- 
seven  leagues  of  the  route.  This  Cabo  de  Lopo  Gon^alvez  is 
exactly  on  the  Equator1  and  it  is  densely  populated  by  negroes, 
as  densely  as  in  any  part  of  the  world.  During  many  years  of 
navigation  and  exploration  of  this  part  of  the  Ethiopias  of  Guinea 
we  have  in  many  places  taken  the  degrees  of  latitude,  and  we  have 
found  that  the  Equator  passes  exactly  over  this  promontory  and 
that  the  days  and  nights  here  are  equal  or  with  so  little  difference 
between  them  as  to  be  scarcely  noticeable.  Many  of  the  ancients 
said  that  two  lands  lying  east  and  west  of  one  another  would 
both  have  the  same  degrees  of  the  sun  and  would  be  in  all  things 
alike ;  as  to  their  equal  share  of  sun  this  is  true,  but  such  is  the 
variety  employed  by  the  majesty  of  great  Nature  in  her  creative 
work  that  we  find  from  experience  that  the  inhabitants  of  this 
promontory  of  Lopo  Gon9alvez  and  of  the  rest  of  Guinea  are 
very  black,  whereas  the  inhabitants  of  the  same  latitudes  beyond 
the  Ocean  to  the  west  are  brown,  almost  white.  These  are  the 
inhabitants  of  Brazil,  of  whom  we  spoke  in  the  second  chapter 
of  our  first  book.  If  any  should  aver  that  they  are  white  because 
of  the  many  forests  which  protect  them  from  the  sun,  I  would 
answer  that  there  are  as  many  and  as  dense  forests  in  this  eastern 
side  of  the  Guinea*  Ocean;  and  if  they  should  say  that  the 
inhabitants  of  Guinea  are  black  because  they  are  naked  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Brazil  white  because  they  wear  clothes,  I  answer 
that  Nature  has  given  them  an  equal  privilege  in  this,  for  they 
are  all  naked  as  when  they  were  bom ;  so  that  we  may  say  that 
the  sun  affects  them  equally.  And  now  it  only  remains  to  know 
if  they  are  both  descended  from  Adam. 

Item.  Sixty  leagues  out  to  sea  WNW  from  Cabo  de  Lopo 
Gon^lvez  is  the  island  of  Sam  Thom63,  which  was  discovered 

1  o°  40'  S.  in  reality. 

1  I.e.  Southern  Atlantic. 

5  The  island  of  S.  Thomi  lies  between  the  parallels  of  o°  24'  N.  and 
o°  01'  S.  and  between  the  meridians  of  6°  28'  E.  and  6°  46'  E. :  it  is  128  miles 
westnorthwest  of  Cape  Lopez,  the  nearest  point  on  the  African  mainland. 
Although  the  island  is  well  cultivated  to-day,  dense  forests  still  clothe  the 
mountain  ranges  which  radiate  from  the  centre  of  the  island.  The  luxuriance 
of  the  vegetation  is  largely  the  resultant  of  heavy  rainfall,  continuously  high 
temperatures  and  rich  volcanic  soils. 


s.  thom£  island 


137 

at  the  bidding  of  the  most  serene  King  John  II  of  Portugal,  who 
ordered  it  to  be  peopled.  This  island  is  some  fifteen  leagues  long 
and  eight  leagues  wide,  and  is  situated  i°  N  of  the  Equator.  On 
the  north  it  has  a  large  bay  in  which  ships  of  any  size  can  anchor. 
This  island  has  the  most  beautiful  tall  dense  forests  in  the  whole 
of  the  Ethiopias  of  Guinea,  and  many  good  springs  and  streams 
of  water.  This  island  also  has  by  far  the  best  sugar-canes  grown 
anywhere  and  many  very  good  orange,  lemon  and  citron  trees, 
in  addition  to  other  trees  which  flourish  here.  Here,  too,  there 
are  many  large  man-eating  crocodiles,  both  in  the  streams  and 
in  the  sea;  there  are  also  vipers,  with  black  backs  and  white 
bellies,  of  the  thickness  of  a  man’s  leg  and  long  in  proportion, 
and  these  are  exceedingly  poisonous1.  I  think  that  if  you  wished 
to  plant  mulberry  trees  here  and  grow  silkworms  they  would 
do  exceptionally  well. 

Item.  To  the  NNE  of  the  island  of  Sam  Thom£  is  another 
smaller  island  called  Sant’  Antonio  or  Principe*,  twenty-five 
leagues  distant  by  sea.  It  lies  30  N  of  the  Equator.  This  island 
also  was  discovered  and  peopled  by  King  John  II ;  it  is  very  like 
the  island  of  Sam  Thom6  in  character,  except  that  it  has  not  its 
serpents. 

Item.  Twenty-three  leagues  beyond  Cabo  de  Lopo  Gonsalvez 
is  a  small  river  called  Rio  das  Barreiras3  which  lies  NW  by  N 
and  SE  by  S  with  respect  to  the  said  Cape  and  i°  12'  south  of 
the  Equator.  We  do  not  know  if  any  profit  is  to  be  made  here, 
as  the  river  is  very  small  and  shallow  and  no  ships  enter  its 
mouth.  The  negroes  of  this  land  are  all  heathens  and  idolaters 
and  not  given  to  commerce;  they  live  on  meat,  millet  and 
sugar-canes. 

Item.  Twenty  leagues  beyond  the  Rio  das  Barreiras  one  finds 
a  small  low-lying  promontory  called  Cabo  de  Caterina4;  this 

*  The  Gaboon  viper.  “Of  all  serpents,  this  representative  of  Africa’s 
excessively  stout  vipers  is  the  most  sinister  ”  (R.  L.  Ditmars,  The  Snakes  of  the 
World,  Plate  47).  Its  normal  length  is  about  6  or  7  ft.  and  its  under-markings 
are  light  compared  with  those  on  its  back  ( vide  F.  Angel,  Les  Serpents  de 
VAfrique  Occidentale  Franfaise,  pp.  203-4). 

*  Now  called  by  the  latter  name,  the  former  being  reserved  for  one  of  the 
most  important  bays  in  the  island.  It  lies  between  i°  42'  N.  and  x°  32'  N. 

3  One  of  the  numerous  distributaries  of  the  Ogowi  River  (?). 

4  I.e.  Cape  St  Catherine,  discovered  in  1470/1. 


CAPE  ST  CATHERINE 


*38 

name  was  given  it  by  Ruy  de  Siqueyra,  a  knight  of  the  household 
of  King  Afonso  V,  who  discovered  it  on  St  Catherine  s  day, 
which  is  the  25th  day  of  November.  This  cape  and  the  Rio  das 
Barreiras  lie  NW  by  N  and  SE  by  S  and  the  land  here  is  low 
and  well-wooded.  Beyond  this  cape  the  coast,  which  takes  an 
almost  eastsoutheast  turn,  forms  a  bay  which  extends  for  five 
leagues.  This  promontory  is  40  30'  south  of  the  Equator1.  Thus 
far  extended  the  discoveries  of  the  excellent  prince,  King 
Afonso  V,  and  here  our  second  book  ends,  and  the  third  book 
begins,  concerning  the  most  serene  prince,  King  John  II  of 
Portugal,  his  son. 

*  Actually  only  x°S3'  S.  Pacheco  obviously  did  not  bother  to  check  his 
linear  reckonings  against  his  astronomical,  otherwise  he  would  never  have 
allowed  his  reading  of  40  30'  S.  to  stand,  for  this  means  that  Cape  St  Catherine 
and  Rio  das  Barreiras  are  some  3“  18'  apart  (i.e.  60  leagues  on  his  calculation), 
whereas  he  says  that  they  are  only  20  leagues  apart. 


THIRD  BOOK 


The  beginning  of  the  third  book  of  the 
Esmeraldo  De  Situ  Orbis,  concerning  the  dis¬ 
coveries  of  the  most  serene  Prince ,  King  John  II  of 
Portugal.  Here  follows ,  firstly ,  the  Prologue. 

Writers  who  allow  things  worthy  of  remembrance  to  fall  into 
oblivion  deserve  great  blame ;  it  is  right  therefore  that  we  should 
record  the  high  deserts  of  that  prince  whose  glory  deserves  to 
be  eternal.  For  among  men  bom  of  women  singularly  endowed 
with  divine  virtue  there  arose  no  man  so  excellent  in  his  time 
as  the  late  most  serene  prince,  King  John  II  of  Portugal;  and 
since  the  end  of  blessedness  consists  in  virtues,  his  noble  virtues 
of  which  he  had  his  full  share  secured  a  glorious  immortality 
for  his  excellent  fame.  Since  our  second  book  concerning  King 
Afonso  V  is  ended,  we  must  now  in  this  Prologue  begin  our  third 
book,  telling  of  the  discoveries  of  the  most  serene  King  John. 
It  is  a  heavy  task,  owing  to  the  greatness  of  the  prince  whose 
deeds  we  hope  to  relate ;  his  famous  achievements,  known  and 
spread  throughout  the  globe,  should  be  related  by  those  ancient 
fathers  of  eloquence  and  learning  whose  disciples  all  of  us  have 
been.  But  since  I  have  been  emboldened  to  undertake  the 
task,  I  should  not  be  censured  by  the  learned,  much  less  by 
mischievous  back-biters  and  grumblers  who  in  their  malice 
habitually  write  books  against  books  slandering  and  criticising 
things  well  done  such  as  they  could  never  have  done  themselves. 
But  what  can  I  say  of  this  prince  except  that  he  was  a  Catholic 
after  the  divine  pattern?  He  excelled  in  love  both  towards  men 
of  the  highest  and  lowest  estate,  and  his  heart  was  continually 
with  God  and  in  him  was  fulfilled  the  saying  of  the  most  wise 
King  Solomon  that  “The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of 
wisdom1.”  In  understanding  and  singular  talent  he  excelled  all 
the  men  of  our  time.  He  was  the  soul  and  essence  of  truth,  so 


‘  Proverbs  ix,  io. 


I4o  CHARACTER  OF  JOHN  II 

that  we  believed  in  his  word  as  in  the  Gospel.  The  beauty  of  his 
soul  corresponded  to  the  beauty  of  his  bodily  appearance;  his 
knowledge  and  counsel  seemed  to  be  divine,  so  that  he  accom¬ 
plished  great  deeds.  He  knew  also  how  to  be  liberal  with 
discretion,  guarding  himself  from  the  vices  of  avarice  and 
prodigality.  In  all  that  he  did  he  was  great,  and  the  strength  of 
his  heart  is  worthy  of  great  praise,  based  as  it  was  on  an  honest 
peace  of  mind  of  great  power ;  he  was  esteemed  by  all  the  princes 
of  Christendom  as  excelling  in  all  his  deeds,  and  equally  by  the 
Moors.  When  only  sixteen  he  was  knighted  at  the  capture  of 
Arzila,  which  the  King,  his  father,  took  by  force  of  arms  from 
the  Moors,  but  all  the  praise  that  can  be  ascribed  to  him  must 
needs  fall  short  of  his  great  excellence.  He  ever  maintained 
justice  in  his  republic,  over  which  he  ruled  as  a  loving  shepherd, 
and  his  yoke  was  light1.  His  device  was  a  pelican  (which  we  have 
drawn  here)  plucking  its  breast  to  give  its  blood  to  its  young. 
His  motto  was  “Polla  ley  e  Polla  grey3”;  and  he  was  consistent 
in  all  things.  But  I  will  say  no  more  that  I  may  not  be  blamed 
for  prolixity,  although  prolixity  when  well  employed  is  no  bad 

“Polla  ley  e  Polla  grey.” 


Chapter  i 

Concerning  the  discoveries  of  the  most  serene  Prince , 
King  John  II  of  Portugal . 

Ancient  writers  greatly  praised  the  navigation  which  Menelaus 
is  said  to  have  made  from  Calez  to  the  Arabian  Gulf  and  which 
Eudoxus  also  made  from  the  same  place  to  Calez  and  which 
Hanno  of  Carthage  made  from  Spain  to  the  Arabian  Gulf,  all 
three  making  the  same  voyage.  Moreover,  Pliny  says,  in  the 
69th  chapter^  of  the  second  book  of  his  Natural  History,  in  which 

*  Cf.  St  Matthew  xi.  30.  1  I.e.  “  For  the  law  and  for  the  people.” 

s  Actually  the  67th  chapter.  The  passage,  the  sense  of  which  Pacheco 
distorts,  runs  as  follows :  “  We  learn  from  Cornelius  Nepos,  that  one  Eudoxus, 
a  contemporary  of  his,  when  he  was  flying  from  King  Lathyrus,  set  out  from 
the  Arabian  Gulf,  and  was  carried  as  far  as  Gades.  And  long  before  him, 
Caelius  Antipater  informs  us  that  he  had  seen  a  person  who  had  sailed  from 
Spain  to  Ethiopia  for  the  purposes  of  trade  ”  (Bostock  and  Riley’s  translation). 


EXPLORATION  UNDER  JOHN  II  141 

he  quotes  Celius  Antipatcr  and  also  Cornelius  Nepos,  that 
these  men  saw  persons  sail,  for  trading  purposes,  from  Spain  to 
Ethiopia  or  Guinea,  which  they  considered  a  most  notable 
achievement.  But  I  say  that,  for  all  their  knowledge  of  those 
parts,  the  best  part  of  all  these  regions  and  provinces  remained 
for  us  as  virgin  soil ;  for  we  have  found  out  and  know  in  great 
detail  all  the  country  of  the  Ethiopias  of  Guinea  and  India.  In 
particular  we  have  sailed  along  the  coast  and  have  many  years’ 
experience  of  the  way  of  life  of  the  negroes  of  this  region  and 
of  their  trade  and  idolatries.  In  this  we,  the  Portuguese,  have 
excelled  the  ancients  and  modems  in  such  wise  that  we  may 
justly  say  that,  compared  with  us,  they  knew  nothing.  This  was 
due  to  the  great  intelligence  of  our  princes  mentioned  in  this 
book  and  the  courage  of  their  hearts,  so  that  they  spent  their 
treasure  in  the  discovery  of  these  lands  only  to  win  immortal 
fame;  with  very  happy  results,  for  those  who  previously  were 
ignorant  of  the  faith  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  were  lost, 
body  and  soul,  now  through  communication  with  us  have  know¬ 
ledge  of  it  and  are  on  the  way  to  salvation,  for  many  of  the 
Ethiopians  who  have  been  brought  to  Portugal  have  become 
Christians  and  have  received  the  water  of  holy  baptism,  so  that 
they  ought  certainly  to  be  saved.  The  worst  drawback  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  composition  of  this  work  of  ours  is  that  it 
so  happens  that  in  the  part  discovered  by  the  most  serene  King 
John  the  country  from  Cabo  de  Caterina  is  mostly  deserted  or 
if  inhabited  has  little  or  no  trade;  had  it  been  rich  in  trade  as 
the  preceding  region  I  should  have  had  much  greater  pleasure 
in  describing  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  it. 

Item.  Beyond  Cabo  de  Caterina,  which  we  mentioned  in  the 
last  paragraph  of  the  second  book,  are  some  fairly  high  red  cliffs 
above  the  coast  which  extend  for  about  a  league  along  the  shore1 ; 
Cabo  de  Caterina  lies  with  respect  to  these  NW  by  W  and  SE 
by  E  and  the  intervening  distance  is  twenty  leagues.  The  latitude 
of  these  cliffs  is  50  south.  The  country  is  densely  wooded  and 
thickly  populated,  and  here  there  are  many  elephants  and  many 
other  animals  of  various  kinds. 

*  The  neighbourhood  of  Panga  Point  (?)  (vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  XI, 
P-  X59)- 


CONGO  RIVER 


142 

Item.  Twelve  leagues  beyond  these  red  cliffs  are  two  thickets 
above  the  coast,  with  exceptionally  tall  trees.  The  littoral  is  all 
beach  and  the  coast  rugged,  the  hinterland  being  neither  very 
high  nor  very  low,  but  of  average  elevation.  The  red  cliffs  and 
these  thickets  lie  NNW  and  SSE  and  occupy  twelve  leagues,  as 
I  have  said. 

Item.  Twenty-five  leagues  to  the  SSW  of  these  thickets  is 
a  large  river  which  we  call  Rio  do  Padram1  and  which  was 
discovered  at  the  bidding  of  the  most  serene  King  John  II  by 
Dieguo  Ca2o,  a  knight  of  his  household,  in  the  year  of  Our 
Lord  1484.  The  latitude  of  this  river  is  70  south1;  in  winter, 
which  lasts  here  from  April  till  the  end  of  September,  it  brings 
down  so  great  a  volume  of  fresh  water  that  it  is  felt  thirty  leagues 
out  at  sea3.  When  it  was  discovered  they  set  up  beyond  its  mouth 

*  I.e.  Congo  River.  Diogo  C5o,  who  discovered  this  river  on  his  first 
African  voyage  in  1483,  and  not  1484  {vide  W.  Ravenstein,  "The  Voyages  of 
D.  do  and  Bartholomcu  Dias,”  Royal  Geographical  Journal,  1900,  pp.  627 
tt  seq.),  was  the  first  to  carry  “padrSes”  (or  stone  pillars)  on  a  Portuguese 
exploring  voyage.  Up  to  his  time  the  Portuguese  had  been  content  to  erect 
perishable  wooden  crosses,  or  to  carve  inscriptions  into  trees  to  mark  the 
progress  of  their  discoveries.  King  John  conceived  the  idea  of  using  stone 
pillars,  surmounted  by  a  cross  and  bearing,  in  addition  to  the  royal  arms, 
an  inscription  recording  in  Portuguese  and  sometimes  in  Latin,  the  date,  the 
name  of  the  king  by  whose  order  the  voyage  was  made  and  the  name  of  the 
commander.  The  four  “padrSes”  set  up  by  C3o  on  his  two  voyages  have 
been  discovered  in  situ  and  the  inscriptions  upon  two  of  them — one  for  each 
voyage— are  still  legible  and  have  been  deciphered.  The  Congo  "padrio” 
was  broken  into  fragments,  wantonly  so  it  would  seem,  by  the  Dutch  when 
they  occupied  the  Congo  in  1642.  Although  two  large  fragments  of  it  have 
been  rescued,  it  has  not  been  possible  to  reconstruct  the  inscription.  However 
it  is  probable  that,  in  its  main  elements,  it  followed  the  plan  of  the  second 
“padrio”  erected  on  Cio’s  first  voyage,  namely  at  Cape  St  Mary.  On  this 
pillar,  which  stands  about  7  ft.  high,  the  inscription,  written  in  Portuguese  only, 
runs  as  follows : "  In  the  year  6681  of  the  world,  and  in  that  of  1482  since  the 
birth  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  most  serene,  most  excellent  and  potent 
prince,  King  John  II  of  Portugal  did  order  this  land  to  be  discovered  and 
these  ‘padr&es’  to  be  set  up  by  D°  Cio,  an  esquire  of  his  household.” 

*  Actually  6°  S. 

1  The  coolest  months  in  the  lower  Congo  are  from  June  to  the  beginning 
of  October,  when  very  little  rain  falls.  During  the  fim  ten  days  of  October 
the  weather  changes,  becoming  showery  with  intervals  of  dryness.  By  the 
end  of  the  month  the  hot,  or  rainy,  season  is  fully  established  and  it  lasts, 
with  the  exception  of  an  interlude  in  January  and  February — the  *'  little  dry 
season  ’’ — right  on  until  the  end  of  April.  The  correlation  between  the  seasons 
and  the  volume  of  the  Congo  is  hardly  as  simple  as  Pacheco  seems  to  think. 
The  Congo  itself,  and  its  left  bank  affluents,  more  especially  the  Kasai,  have 
two  periods  of  high  level  and  two  periods  of  low  level  each  year.  The  river  is 


**~v  « 


Series  II.VoL  LXXIX 


hakluyt  society 


THE  COASTS  OF  WEST  AND  SOUTH  AFRICA  ON  AN  ITALIAN  CHART  OF  e.  1508 
British  Museum,  Egerton  MS.  2803 


KINGDOM  OF  CONGO 


H3 

to  the  SE  a  tall  stone  pillar  with  a  threefold  inscription,  in  Latin, 
Portuguese  and  Arabic,  and  it  was  accordingly  called  Rio  do 
Padram.  Its  channel  has  a  depth  of  eight  to  ten  fathoms.  This 
is  the  kingdom  of  Conguo,  of  which  we  will  speak  in  the  following 
chapter.  The  inscription  speaks  of  the  King  by  whose  command 
the  discovery  was  made  and  the  date. 


Chapter  ii 

Concerning  the  Kingdom  of  Conguo  and  the  country 
of  the  AnzicoSy  where  they  eat  men. 

Above  this  Rio  do  Padram  concerning  which  we  have  spoken 
in  the  above  paragraph  of  the  third  book  is  the  Kingdom  of 
Conguo.  The  natives  call  this  river  “EmzazcV’  It  rises  in  the 
interior  in  some  mountains  fifty  leagues  distant  from  the  coast1 ; 
its  size  is  increased  by  numerous  tributary  rivers  and  the  negroes 
of  this  country  use  many  large  canoes.  There  is  much  fishing 
there,  but  the  region  is  very  liable  to  fever.  The  native  word  for 
lord  is  “many,”  thus  “maniconguo”  means  the  “Lord  of 
Conguo.” 

low  in  March  and  July,  high  in  May  and  December.  “This  double  maximum 
and  double  minimum  are  due,  not  so  much  to  the  alternate  flooding  of  the 
tributaries  lying,  respectively,  northward  and  southward  of  the  Equator,  as 
was  formerly  believed,  as  to  the  double  rainy  season  in  the  region  southward 
of  the  Equator.  The  northern  affluents  contribute  to  the  result,  but  the 
southern  appear  to  control  the  level  of  the  river”  ( Africa  Pilot,  Part  n,  p.  181). 
During  these  rainy  seasons,  the  current  is  very  rapid,  probably  about  4  knots, 
and  so  great  is  its  volume  that  "the  surface  water  is  still  quite  fresh  at  a 
distance  of  9  miles  seaward  of  the  mouth  of  the  Congo,  and  it  is  only  partially 
mixed  with  that  of  the  sea  at  a  distance  of  40  miles  from  the  coast:  whilst 
discoloration  caused  by  the  fresh  water,  and  also  a  perceptible  current  has 
been  reported  300  miles  offshore  ”  (ibid.  pp.  179,  180).  Diogo  C#o,  according 
to  a  statement  on  Soligo’s  chart  of  this  region,  found  fresh  water  5  leagues 
out  to  sea. 

1  This  is  a  corruption  of  the  native  word  "Nzadi”  signifying  "great 
river,”  but  at  the  present  time  applied  specifically  to  the  Congo.  It  was  from 
this  word  probably,  that  the  common  Portuguese  appellative  for  the  Congo — 
"zaire” — was  coined. 

1  Seeing  that  Pacheco  has  just  told  us  that  the  current  of  the  Congo  is  felt 
30  leagues  out  to  sea,  it  is  surprising  that  he  should  be  content  to  give  it  so 
small  a  length — less  than  that  of  the  Tagus ! 


COMMERCE  OF  CONGO 


144 

As  soon  as  the  most  serene  King  John  discovered  this  country 
he  sought  to  convert  Maniconguo  and  his  people  to  Christianity1. 
For  this  purpose  he  sent  out  monks  and  priests  to  teach  them 
the  articles  of  our  faith.  They  took  with  them  rich  church 
ornaments,  organs  and  other  necessary  things ;  when  Maniconguo 
and  the  nobles  and  people  saw  the  Mass  and  other  divine 
services  they  were  very  pleased  and  he  and  the  nobles  were  at 
once  baptised  and  became  Christians,  but  he  would  not  allow 
the  rest  to  be  baptised,  saying  that  so  good  and  holy  a  thing 
should  not  be  bestowed  on  men  of  low  degree.  However  they 
did  not  give  up  their  many  wives,  for  they  had  always  had  them 
and  it  was  impossible  to  change  [the  practice].  Furthermore, 
owing  to  our  infrequent  communication  with  these  people,  they 
are  rapidly  losing  their  Christianity. 

Item.  In  this  land  of  Maniconguo  there  is  no  gold,  nor  do 
they  know  what  gold  is ;  but  there  is  much  fine  copper  and  many 
elephants,  which  they  call  “za3o”;  we  barter  the  copper  and 
ivory  for  linen,  which  the  natives  call  “molele.”  In  this  Kingdom 
of  Conguo  they  make  cloths  of  palm-leaf  as  soft  as  velvet,  some 
of  them  embroidered  with  velvet  satin,  as  beautiful  as  any  made 
in  Italy;  this  is  the  only  country  in  the  whole  of  Guinea  where 
they  know  how  to  make  these  cloths.  A  few  slaves  are  obtained 
in  this  country  but  we  know  of  no  other  commerce. 

Item.  Beyond  the  Conguo  country  to  the  NE  there  is  another 
country  called  Anzica,  its  lord  in  our  day  being  called  Emcuqua- 
anzico.  The  inhabitants,  like  those  of  Conguo,  are  black  and  are 
branded  on  the  forehead  or  temples  with  a  circle  in  the  shape 
of  a  snail.  They  are  usually  at  war  with  Maniconguo,  and  any 
who  die  in  battle,  either  on  their  own  side  or  on  that  of  the 
enemy,  they  straightway  eat,  and  they  also  eat  anyone  who 
appears  to  be  sick  unto  death.  This  land  is  situated  very  far 


1  Barr  os  tells  us  that  Clo,  on  his  second  voyage,  brought  back  the  sons  of 
some  of  Manicongo’s  courtiers  to  be  instructed  in  the  Christian  faith  and  that 
Manicongo  himself  asked  for  priests  to  instruct  the  people  (op.  cit.  Decade  I, 
book  in,  chap.  3).  Ruy  de  Pina,  who  gives  us  the  best  account  of  the  spread 
of  Christianity  in  the  Congo,  adds  that  Manicongo  also  desired  to  have  masons 
and  carpenters  to  erect  churches  and  houses,  so  that  he  might  be  able  to 
model  his  kingdom  as  far  as  possible  on  the  Portuguese  pattern  (Cromca  de 
D.  Jodo  II,  chaps.  58-63). 


THE  CONGO  COAST 


145 

from  the  coast  in  the  interior,  and  we  do  not  know  of  any  profit 
to  be  had  there. 

Item.  Some  thirty-five  leagues  beyond  Rio  do  Pad  ram,  of 
which  we  have  spoken  above,  is  the  small  river  called  Rio  do 
Mondeguo1 ;  here  the  coast  forms  a  bay  of  a  little  more  than  a 
league  and  at  its  mouth  there  are  two  small  islands,  low  and 
level  and  sparsely  wooded,  called  Ilhas  das  Cabras3.  They  are 
very  near  the  mainland  and  the  negroes  who  inhabit  them  belong 
to  the  lordship  of  Maniconguo,  the  Conguo  country  extending 
even  beyond  them.  The  negroes  of  these  islands  pick  up  small 
shells  (of  the  size  of  pine-nuts  in  their  shell)  which  they  call 
“zinbos.”  These  are  used  as  money  in  the  country  of  Mani¬ 
conguo  ;  fifty  of  them  will  buy  a  hen,  and  three  hundred  a  goat 
and  so  forth ;  and  when  Maniconguo  wishes  to  confer  a  favour 
on  one  of  his  nobles  or  reward  a  service  done  to  him,  he  orders 
him  to  be  given  a  certain  number  of  these  “zinbos,”  just  as  our 
princes  bestow  money  of  these  realms  on  those  who  deserve  it, 
and  often  on  those  who  do  not.  In  the  country  of  Beny,  con¬ 
cerning  which  I  wrote  in  the  fourth  paragraph  of  the  seventh 
chapter  of  the  second  book,  they  use  as  money  shells  which  they 
call  “  iguou,”  a  little  larger  than  these  “  zimbos  ”  of  Maniconguo ; 
they  use  them  to  buy  everything  and  he  who  has  most  of  them 
is  the  richest.  The  country  from  Rio  do  Padram  to  Rio  do 
Mondeguo  and  the  Ilhas  das  Cabras  along  the  coast  is  flat  and 
well  wooded;  it  lies  north  and  south  and  occupies  thirty-five 
leagues  of  the  route,  as  I  have  said  above.  The  Ilhas  das  Cabras 
are  situated  90  south  of  the  Equator  and  by  this  they  can  be 
recognised.  Off  these  islands  at  thirty  fathoms  there  is  extremely 
abundant  fishing. 

Item.  Twenty  leagues  beyond  the  Ilha[s]  das  Cabras  is  the 
point  called  Ponta  das  Camboas3,  so-called  because  when  Dieguo 
Caao,  a  knight  of  the  household  of  the  late  King  John,  discovered 
this  land,  he  found  some  fish-garths  here  in  which  negroes  were 

1  Bengo  River  {vide  Ravenstein,  op.  at.  p.  652). 

1  Loando  Island  and  Loando  Reef.  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  11,  p.  202. 

J  Cape  S3o  Braz  (io°  S.)  according  to  Ravenstein  {op.  cit.  p.  652),  but  the 
Pilot  speaks  of  no  off-shore  dangers.  Cape  Lcdo  (90  45'  S.)  seems  to  be  a 
more  likely  identification  {vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  n,  p.  207).  “Camboas” 
signifies  fish-garth,  dam  or  weir. 


HK 


10 


CAPE  ST  MARY 


146 

fishing  and  so  he  gave  it  this  name.  This  point  is  full  of  hidden 
rocks.  Beyond,  there  is  a  very  small  river  like  a  creek ;  it  has  no 
trade  and  need  not  be  described.  This  point  lies  NNVV  and 
SSE  in  respect  of  the  Ilha[s]  das  Cabras  and  is  twenty  leagues 
along  the  route;  its  latitude  is  io^°  south. 

Item.  Ponta  das  Camboas  and  Ponta  de  Sam  Louren^1  lie 
north  and  south  and  occupy  twenty  leagues  of  the  route ;  all  this 
country  is  very  flat  and  less  wooded  than  the  preceding. 

Chapter  iii 

Concerning  the  routes,  distances  and  degrees  beyond 
Ponta  de  Sam  Lourenfo. 

The  discovery  of  these  Ethiopias  cost  Prince  Henry  the  death 
of  many  men  and  much  expense,  for  he  was  the  first  discoverer 
of  the  great  things  we  have  found  worthy  to  record.  For  this 
reason,  we  will  continue  to  describe  the  whole  of  the  country 
with  its  harbours,  bays,  routes  and  degrees  of  latitude,  so  as  to 
observe  a  proper  order  and  to  make  known  the  coast  and  sea¬ 
board  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  come  after  us,  in  case  they 
need  it. 

Item.  Beyond  Ponta  de  Sam  Lourenfo,  of  which  we  wrote  in 
the  last  paragraph  of  the  second  chapter  of  Book  III,  there  begins 
a  bay3.  ..of  Santa  Maria:  beyond,  the  coast  runs  straight  and 
at  eighteen  leagues,  reckoning  from  Ponta  de  Sam  Lourenfo,  it 
forms  a  promontory  called  Ponta  Preta3 ;  it  was  given  this  name 
because  they  use  a  black  "manilha4”  there.  Ponta  de  Sam 
Lourengo  and  Ponta  Preta  lie  N  and  S  and  occupy  eighteen 
leagues  of  the  route.  The  country  is  not  as  well-wooded  as  the 
preceding  region.  Ponta  Preta  is  situated  130  40'  south  of  the 
Equator. 

x  Mono  Point  (?).  Cf.  Africa  Pilot,  Part  II,  p.  208. 

*  Lacuna.  The  sense  is  supplied  by  the  insertion  of  some  such  words  as 
“which  has  the  name.”  The  bay  in  question  is  Bcnguela  Bay. 

3  I.e.  Cape  St  Mary,  130  26'  S. 

4  Ravenstein  gives  the  following  explanation  of  the  name :  “  it  was  called 
Ponta  Preta. .  .because  of  a  black  trump — manilha  negra — which  was 
played  here  in  a  game  of  ‘manille’”  (op.  cit.  p.  631). 


THE  ANGOLA  COAST 


147 

Item.  Ponta  Preta  and  Monte  Negro  lie  N  and  S  and  occupy 
25  leagues  of  the  route.  This  mountain,  which  is  not  very  lofty, 
rises  above  the  sea.  It  was  named  Monte  Negro  because  it  is 
covered  by  a  low,  even  thicket  which  makes  a  darker  showing 
than  the  sand  surrounding  it.  This  part  of  the  coast  is  practically 
desert  and  has  a  very  sparse  population.  The  latitude  of  Monte 
Negro  is  1 50  20'  south. 

Item.  Eight  leagues  beyond  Monte  Negro  is  a  large  bay 
which  runs  inland  a  league  and  a  half.  It  is  called  Angra  das 
Aldeas1,  because,  when  Dieguo  Ca3o  discovered  this  coast  at 
the  bidding  of  the  late  King  John,  he  found  two  large  villages 
inside  this  bay.  The  negroes  of  this  land  are  poor  and  live 
entirely  on  fish,  which  is  plentiful  in  this  neighbourhood;  they 
are  idolaters.  There  is  no  profit  to  be  made  here.  From  Monte 
Negro  thither  the  coast  runs  NE  and  SW  and  occupies  eight 
leagues ;  and  all  this  country  along  the  sea  is  low. 

Item.  Beyond  Angra  das  Aldeas  is  a  bay  some  two  leagues 
wide  at  the  mouth,  called  Mangua  das  Areas1;  it  runs  five  or 
six  leagues  inland  and  both  inside  and  at  its  mouth  has  a  depth 
of  twelve  and  fifteen  fathoms.  The  country  is  a  treeless  desert 
containing  nothing  but  sand.  There  is  much  fishing  inside  the 
bay  and  at  certain  times  of  the  year  negroes  from  the  interior 
come  to  fish  here ;  these  make  huts  of  whalebones  covered  with 
seaweed  and  sprinkled  with  sand  and  lead  a  miserable  existence. 
This  Mangua  das  Areas  and  the  Angra  das  Aldeas  lie  NE  and 
SW  and  occupy  fifteen  leagues  of  the  route.  The  latitude  of 
Mangua  das  Areas  is  i6£°  south. 

Item.  Six  leagues  beyond  the  Mangua  das  Areas  the  land 
forms  a  low  point  covered  with  sand,  called  Ponta  das  Pedras*, 
so  called  because  in  front  of  this  point  and  beyond  it  are  many 
large  rocks.  The  coast  to  this  point  runs  NE  by  E  and  SW  by  W 
and  occupies  six  leagues  of  the  route.  The  land  is  very  low  and 
difficult  to  distinguish,  but  it  can  be  recognised  by  the  fact  that  it 
is  1 6°  40'  S  of  the  Equator:  this  is  its  best  landmark. 

*  The  vicinity  of  Albino  Point,  150  55'  S.  {vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  11,  p.  227). 

*  I.e.  Tiger  Peninsula,  160  30'  S.  (vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  it,  p.  228). 

3  I.e.  Monte  Vermelho,  near  the  southern  extremity  of  Great  Fish  Bay, 
160  50'  S. 


10-2 


148  DESERT  COAST 

Item.  Ponta  das  Pedras  and  Cabo  Negro1  lie  N  and  S  and 
occupy  twelve  leagues  of  the  route.  This  cape  is  very  low,  and 
the  surrounding  country  is  all  sand  except  at  the  point  of  this 
cape  where  there  is  a  black  patch,  hence  the  name  of  the  cape , 
it  only  appears  as  a  cape  when  one  is  a  league  away  at  sea,  for 
at  three  and  four  leagues  the  coast  appears  to  be  straight.  This 
country  is  difficult  to  navigate ;  its  winter  lasts  from  the  month 
of  April  till  the  end  of  September.  Ships  bound  for  India  always 
keep  250  and  more  leagues  out  to  sea  in  order  to  avoid  this 
part  of  the  coast. 

Chapter  iv 

of  the  third  hook  of  the  Esmeraldo  De  Situ  Orbis. 

There  were  many  opinions  in  times  past  among  the  learned  in 
Portugal  as  to  the  discovery  of  the  Ethiopias  of  Guinea  and  of 
India.  Some  said  that  it  was  better  not  to  trouble  about  dis¬ 
covering  the  sea-coast  but  to  cross  the  Ocean  until  you  reached 
some  country  in  or  adjoining  India,  and  this  would  make  the 
voyage  shorter;  others  held  that  it  would  be  better  to  discover 
the  coast  gradually  and  learn  the  routes  and  landmarks  and  the 
peoples  of  each  region,  so  as  to  have  certain  knowledge  of  the 
country  they  were  seeking,  for  in  no  other  way  would  it  be 
possible  to  know  the  land.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  second  opinion, 
which  was  followed,  was  the  better,  and  so  the  discovery  pro¬ 
ceeded  along  the  coast.  We  must  thus  continue  our  description 
of  the  coast  from  Cabo  Negro  in  the  same  manner  as  we  have 
written  above  about  the  said  land. 

Item.  Seventeen  leagues  beyond  Cabo  Negro  are  some  sand¬ 
hills  along  the  sea,  six  or  seven  in  all,  rather  higher  than  the 
surrounding  country.  The  whole  of  this  coast  is  desert  and 
uninhabited,  and  from  Cabo  Negro  to  these  sand-hills  it  runs 
N  and  S  and  occupies  seventeen  leagues  of  the  route.  The 
latitude  of  these  hills  is  190  south. 

Item.  The  coast  from  the  sand-hills  to  Angra  de  Ruy  Pires* 

*  Cape  Frio(?)  (mdt  Africa  Pilot,  Part  ii,  p.  *31). 

*  Ravenstcin  locates  it  off  Uniab  River,  igc  50'  S.  (op.  cit.  p.  653).  Exact 
identification  is  impossible  from  the  Africa  Pilot.  Ruy  Pirez  was  presumably 
one  of  Diogo  CSo’s  men  but  nothing  is  known  of  him. 


DIOGO  CAO  AT  CAPE  CROSS 


*49 

runs  midway  between  N  and  S  and  N  by  W  and  S  by  E  and 
occupies  twenty  leagues  of  the  route.  All  this  country  is  very 
low,  sandy  and  deserted.  In  this  bay  six  or  seven  small  vessels 
can  anchor  in  eight  fathoms  a  gunshot  from  land  on  a  clean 
bottom ;  the  latitude  of  the  bay  is  20°  south. 

Item.  Twenty-five  leagues  beyond  Angra  de  Ruy  Pi  res  is 
another  small  bay  called  Angra  de  Santo  Amaro1;  it  is  very 
small,  and  all  this  country  is  deserted  and  covered  with  sand. 
Angra  de  Ruy  Pires  and  Angra  de  Santo  Amaro  lie  NNW  and 
SSE  and  occupy  the  said  twenty-five  leagues  of  the  route,  and 
this  Angra  de  Santo  Amaro  is  situated  2i£°  south  of  the  Equator. 

Item.  Angra  de  Santo  Amaro  and  Arcaees  lie  N  and  S  and 
occupy  twelve  leagues  of  the  route ;  the  coast  is  deserted,  being 
nothing  but  sand,  hence  the  name  “os  Areaees  V*  They  are 
220  20'  south  of  the  Equator.  Ten  leagues  beyond  the  Areaees  is 
a  point  called  the  Cabo  do  Padram*,  which  has  a  stone  pillar 
with  an  inscription  in  three  languages,  in  Latin,  Arabic  and 
Portuguese4,  all  three  in  the  same  tenor,  giving  the  date,  after 
the  creation  of  the  world  and  in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  when  King  John  II  of  Portugal  ordered  the  discovery 
of  this  coast  by  Dieguo  Ca5o,  knight  of  his  household  and 
captain  of  his  ships.  This  cape  and  the  Areaees  lie  N  and  S  and 
occupy  ten  leagues  of  the  route  as  stated ;  its  latitude  is  220  45' 
south.  This  country  is  low  and  difficult  to  recognise,  its  best 
landmarks  being  the  elevation  of  the  Antarctic  Pole  and  its 
degrees  from  the  Equator. 

*  Ambrose  Bay  (?)  (vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  II,  pp.  232-3). 

*  I.e.  sandy  places — a  description  that  is  applicable  to  practically  any  part 
of  this  stretch  of  coast. 

5  I.e.  Cape  Cross,  210  50'  S.  This  cape,  according  to  the  legend  on 
H.  Martcllus  Germanus’s  map  of  c.  1489,  coincides  approximately  with 
Clo’s  “farthest  south,”  for  he  only  “proceeded  onwards  as  far  as  the  Serra 
Parda. .  .and  here  he  died.” 

*  This  “padrio”  remained  in  situ  until  1893,  when  it  was  carried  off  to 
Kiel  by  the  captain  of  the  German  ship  Falke.  It  bore  only  two  inscrip¬ 
tions,  in  Gothic  letters,  one  in  Portuguese  and  the  other  in  Latin,  together 
with  the  arms  of  John  II  (adopted  in  1485).  The  Portuguese  inscription  says: 

“  In  the  year  bjMbjcbnocb  (6685)  of  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  of  Christ 
llllclxxxb  (1485)  the  excellent,  illustrious  King  D.  Jo5o  II  of  Portugal  did 
direct  this  land  to  be  discovered,  and  this  padrilo  to  be  set  up  by  D°  C5o,  an 
esquire  of  his  household.”  The  dates  in  the  Latin  inscription  are  in  Arabic 
characters,  which  may  perhaps  account  for  Pacheco’s  mistake. 


150  THE  COUNTRY  BEYOND  CAPRICORN 

Item.  Cabo  do  Padram  and  Praya  das  Pedras1  lie  N  and  S 
and  occupy  twelve  leagues  of  the  route.  This  beach  is  five  or 
six  leagues  long  and  most  of  it  is  covered  with  rocks ;  at  the  end 
of  it  is  a  very  small  bay3  which  lies  precisely  under  the  tropic 
of  Capricorn  and  so  its  latitude  is  23 0  33'  south.  All  this  coast 
is  a  sandy  desert  but  there  is  very  abundant  fishing  here.  From 
this  point  navigation  becomes  difficult:  in  the  months  of  June, 
July  and  August,  however,  north  and  northwesterly  winds  blow 
in  this  neighbourhood  and  are  favourable  for  the  voyage  to  the 
Cabo  de  Boa  Esperan9a. 


Chapter  v 

Concerning  the  country  beyond  the  tropic  of  Capricorn. 

Great  has  been  the  glory  acquired  by  the  virtuous  Prince  Henry 
who  initiated  this  navigation  and  discovery,  and  by  King 
Afonso  V  and  King  John  II,  his  son,  and  especially  by  our  Lord 
the  most  serene  prince,  King  Manuel,  in  discovering  this  un¬ 
known  country  of  the  Ethiopias  of  Guinea,  which  all  the  ancients 
maintained  could  never  be  reached  by  navigation.  To  that 
magnanimous  man,  our  Emperor  Manuel,  has  fallen  the  most 
glorious  part,  for  he  discovered  nearly  the  whole  of  Ethiopia 
under  Egypt  and  the  most  distant  kingdoms  of  India,  in  which 
regions  at  his  bidding  great  conquests  and  singular  victories  have 
been  achieved,  as  we  shall  relate  in  the  fourth  book ;  but  we  must 
first  finish  this  third  book  and  follow  our  plan  of  describing  the 
coast  in  due  order. 

Item.  The  coast  between  Praya  das  Pedras  and  Angra  da 
Comceip$am3  lies  midway  between  north  and  south  and  N  by  W 
and  S  by  E  and  occupies  25  leagues  of  the  route.  All  this  coast 
half  a  league  from  shore  is  foul  with  great  reefs  of  rock;  the 

1  I.e.  Rock  Bay,  22®  18'  S. 

*  The  mouth  of  the  Swakop  River,  22®  40'  S.  (?)  (vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  11, 
P-  23S)‘ 

*  Conception  Bay,  24°  S.,  or  Spencer  Bay,  25®  35'  S.  Ravenstein  (op.  cit.) 
identifies  it  with  Walvis  Bay,  but  this  is  only  22®  53'  S. 


THE  CAPE  VOLTAS  REGION  151 

hinterland  is  low  and  covered  with  sand  and  difficult  to  find. 
The  latitude  of  the  bay  is  25 0  30'  south. 

Item.  Fifteen  leagues  beyond  the  Angra  da  Comceip^am  is 
another  small  bay  called  Angra  da  Balea1;  they  lie  midway 
between  N  and  S  and  N  by  W  and  S  by  E.  The  bottom  along 
all  this  coast  is  clean;  in  thirty  fathoms  one  will  be  a  league 
from  shore,  and  here  there  is  good  fishing.  The  latitude  of  this 
bay  is  26^°  south*. 

Item.  Angra  da  Balea  and  Terra  das  Baixas*  lie  N  by  W  and 
S  by  E  and  occupy  twenty  leagues  of  the  route.  This  locality 
has  some  coastal  shallows  of  rock  which  run  out  into  the  sea  for 
not  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  league  and  in  length  extend  for 
about  a  league;  this  Terra  das  Baixas  is  270  30'  south  of  the 
Equator.  Ten  leagues  beyond  the  said  Terra  das  Baixas  is  a 
small  bay  with  an  islet  at  its  mouth4,  and  behind  the  coast  the 
land  becomes  more  elevated,  and  assumes  the  appearance  of  a 
mountain  range;  and  from  Terra  das  Baixas  to  this  range  the 
coast  runs  midway  between  north  and  south  and  N  by  E  and 
S  by  W  and  occupies  the  aforesaid  ten  leagues  of  the  route. 

Item.  Fifteen  leagues  beyond  this  range  is  the  beautiful 
Angra  das  Voltas5,  with  a  wide  inlet  to  the  NW.  This  coast  runs 
N  and  S ;  but  he  who  leaves  this  mountain,  bound  south,  must 
keep  close  to  land  and  if  it  be  night  should  steer  south  by  west. 
This  Angra  das  Voltas  runs  inland  a  good  league  and  a  half,  and 
a  hundred  ships  can  anchor  here  in  ten  to  twelve  fathoms,  safe 
in  all  weathers.  The  bay  is  a  league  or  more  across  and  contains 
some  rocky  islets,  and  there  is  good  fishing  here;  it  was  dis¬ 
covered  by  Bertholameu  Diaz  at  the  bidding  of  the  late  King 
John  and  is  located  290  20'  south  of  the  Equator.  The  country 
is  bare  and  unwooded. 

1  Luderitz  Bay,  26°  35'  S.  (?). 

*  Cf.  p.  24,  where  the  latitude  is  given  as  21 0  S. 

3  The  coast  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  27°  10'  S. 
(vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  11,  p.  256). 

4  Baker  Bay,  27°4o'  S.  It  is  entered  between  Black  Sophie  rock  and 
Sinclair  Island — a  small  guano  island.  The  hinterland  is  dotted  with  hills 
of  volcanic  formation  and.  presents  quite  a  mountainous  appearance  (vide 
Africa  Pilot,  Part  II,  p.  257).  Ravenstein  believes  that  it  is  to  be  identified 
with  Spencer  Bay,  but  this  is  only  25*43'  S. 

3  Peacock  Roadstead  to  the  south  of  Cape  Voltas  (28*  42'  S.)  (?).  Raven- 
stein  (op.  cit.)  favours  Luderitz  Bay. 


ST  HELENA  BAY 


152 

Item.  Twenty  leagues  beyond  Angra  das  Voltas  is  the  Serra 
da  Pena1;  this  range  is  fairly  high,  treeless  and  covered  with 
rocks.  All  this  country  along  the  coast  is  deserted.  He  who 
makes  for  these  mountains  from  Angra  das  Voltas  should  stand 
four  leagues  out  to  sea ;  by  steering  SSE  he  will  make  the  said 
Serra  da  Pena  and  be  20  leagues  farther  on  the  route,  as  already 
stated.  This  Serra  is  30°  20'  south  of  the  Equator.  Just  beyond 
this  Serra  the  coast  forms  a  bay  with  an  islet,  and  farther  beyond 
still  there  is  a  lofty  tableland*  near  the  coast:  the  extremity  of 
this  tableland  and  the  said  Serra  lie  NW  and  SE  and  occupy  ten 
leagues  of  the  route. 


Chapter  vi 

Concerning  Serra  da  Pena  and  its  tableland ,  and  of  the 
routes  and  landmarks  of  the  country  as  far  as  Cabo  de  Boa 
Esperanfa. 

Great  favour  have  we  received  from  the  Lord  from  whom  all 
blessings  proceed,  for  He  has  given  us  time  and  ability  to  finish 
the  work  we  have  begun,  but  it  is  with  no  small  effort  that  we 
have  written  here  of  the  toilsome  way,  more  difficult  of  dis¬ 
covery  than  might  appear.  Our  princes  who  undertook  this 
[enterprise]  did  not  spend  their  lives  and  treasures  in  vain,  since 
they  attained  the  desired  end.  In  order  that  the  navigation  of 
this  Ethiopia  and  its  coast  may  be  known  in  detail  for  all  time, 
we  must  continue  our  plan  and  fulfil  our  promise. 

Item.  Twenty-five  leagues  farther  on  there  is  a  peak*  which 
lies  NNW-SSE  with  the  tableland  of  the  Serra :  it  is  fairly  high 
and  rocky.  This  part  of  the  coast  during  its  winter,  which  begins 

1  The  hills  rising  behind  Hondeklip  Bay,  30°  20'  S.  (vide  Africa  Pilot, 
Part  11,  p.  268). 

*  There  ia  no  lofty  tableland  near  the  coast,  but  40  miles  southeast  of 
Hondeklip  Bay  there  is  a  plateau  about  14  miles  inland  rising  to  nearly 
2000  ft.  There  is  also  a  very  high  range  of  mountains  at  a  considerable  distance 
inland  of  this  plateau — the  Lange  Berg.  Vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  11,  p.  269. 

i  I.e.  Kapiteins  Kloof,  3410  ft — “a  very  conspicuous  summit  in  the  Piket- 
berg  range  of  mountains.”  Africa  Pilot,  Part  n,  p.  273. 


THE  CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE 


153 

in  April  and  lasts  till  the  end  of  September,  is  stormy  and  cold. 
The  principal  landmark  of  this  locality  is  the  latitude ;  the  peak 
is  32J0  south  of  the  Equator. 

Item.  Twelve  leagues  beyond  this  peak  is  a  bay  called  Angra 
de  Santa  Elena1 :  it  is  fairly  large  and  dangerous  because  of  its 
many  reefs  of  rock ;  the  peak  and  this  bay  lie  N  and  S  and  occupy 
12  leagues  of  the  route,  as  we  have  stated.  The  whole  of  this 
coast  is  foul  with  rocks.  On  the  south  the  bay  runs  into  a  point*, 
where  there  are  shallows  and  here  one  must  be  very  careful ;  its 
latitude  is  320  30'  south  of  the  Equator*. 

Item.  He  who  sails  beyond  Angra  de  Santa  Elena  should 
stand  three  leagues  out  to  sea  because  of  the  presence  of  some 
reefs  of  rock  here;  all  this  coast  has  a  sandy  beach.  Twelve 
leagues  beyond  Angra  de  Santa  Elena  is  a  point  called  Ponta 
da  Praya4;  this  point  and  the  aforesaid  bay  lie  NW  and  SE;  the 
latitude  of  the  point  is  340  10'  south  of  the  Equator. 

Eight  leagues  beyond  Ponta  da  Praya  is  a  beautiful  pro¬ 
montory  which  we  call  Cabo  de  Boa  Esperan^aS ;  it  lies  NNW 
and  SSE  with  the  Ponta  da  Praya  and  is  340  30'  south  of  the 
Equator.  On  the  opposite  page  we  have  given  a  painting6  of  the 
Cape  made  on  the  spot,  and  in  the  following  chapter  we  will 
describe  the  cape  at  greater  length. 

Chapter  vii 

Concerning  the  discovery  of  Cabo  de  Boa  Esperanfa, 
where  Africa  ends. 

It  was  with  good  reason  that  this  promontory  was  called  Cabo 
de  Boa  Esperan^a,  for  Bertholameu  Diaz,  who  discovered  it  at 
the  command  of  the  late  King  John  in  the  year  14887,  when  he 

*  I.e.  St  Helena  Bay. 

*  I.e.  Cape  St  Martin,  32°43'  S. 

3  As  Pacheco  gives  320  30'  S.  for  both  the  bay  and  the  peak,  and  says  that 
they  are  12  leagues  apart,  it  is  obvious  that  they  lie  approximately  east  and 
west  and  not  north  and  south. 

4  I.e.  Green  Point  in  Table  Bay..  330  54'  S. 

5  Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  actually  340  21'  S. 

6  Vide  Introduction,  p.  xxx. 

7  No  official  report  of  Bartholomew  Dias’s  voyage  exists  and  neither  Ruy 
de  Pina  nor  Garcia  de  Resendc  describes  it,  and  although  J0S0  de  Barros 


THE  COUNTRY  OF  THE  CAPE 


154 

saw  that  the  coast  here  turned  northwards  and  northeastwards 
towards  Ethiopia  under  Egypt  and  on  to  the  Gulf  of  Arabia, 
giving  great  hope  of  the  discovery  of  India,  called  it  the  “  Cape 
of  Good  Hope1.”  Its  latitude  is  340  30'  (or  half  a  degree)  south, 
as  we  have  said  above.  The  land  is  very  high  and  shaped  as 
appears  in  our  picture.  During  its  winter,  from  the  month  of 
April  till  the  end  of  the  month  of  September,  it  is  very  cold  and 
stormy5.  The  negroes  of  this  region  are  heathen,  bestial  people, 
and  they  wear  skins  and  sandals  of  raw  hide;  they  are  not  as 
black  as  the  negroes  of  Jalofo,  Mandingua  and  other  parts  of 
Guinea.  There  is  no  trade  here,  but  there  are  many  cows,  goats 
and  sheep  and  there  is  plenty  of  fish.  In  this  country  there  are 
large  cats  called  "baboys,”  almost  of  the  size  of  a  man,  with 
large  beards,  which  one  has  to  see  in  order  to  believe3.  Some 
say  that  this  Cape  is  the  promontory  called  Plaso4  of  which 
Ptolemy  spoke,  but  I  do  not  think  so ;  I  think  rather  it  must  be 
the  Montes  Lunae  in  which  Ptolemy  says  the  Nile  rises,  for  in 
the  very  position  which  Ptolemy  gave  to  these  mountains3,  in 
34J0  south  of  the  Equator,  there  the  promontory  of  Boa 
Esperan^a  is  found,  so  that  the  distance  from  the  Equator  in 
degrees  answers  to  the  Montes  Lunae ;  moreover  the  shape  of 

gives  a  brief  account  his  dates  are  unreliable.  According  to  him  (op.  cit. 
Decade  1,  book  m,  chap.  4)  Dias  started  in  1486  and  returned  in  the  December 
of  the  following  year.  Pacheco’s  date  of  1488  receives  corroboration  from 
two  marginal  notes  (recognised  by  scholars  as  being  in  the  handwriting  of 
Christopher  Columbus),  one  in  a  copy  of  Pierre  d’Ailly’s  Tractatus  de  Imagine 
Mundi,  now  in  the  Columbine  Library  at  Seville,  and  the  other  in  a  copy  of 
the  Historia  rerum  ubique  gestarum  of  Pope  Pius  II.  Moreover  Pacheco  met 
Diaa  on  his  return  voyage  at  Ilho  de  Principe  and  wrote  c.  a.d.  1505,  whereas 
Barros  did  not  write  until  c.  A.D.  1550. 

*  The  usual  tradition,  based  upon  Barros  (op.  cit.),  is  that  Dias  named  it 
the  Stormy  Cape  on  account  of  the  dangers  and  storms  he  and  his  men  had 
passed  through  in  doubling  it,  but  that  King  John  changed  it  to  that  of  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  because  it  gave  promise  of  the  discovery  of  India  which  had 
been  sought  for  so  many  years. 

1  While  gales  are  not  infrequent  accompaniments  of  winter,  the  mean 
winter  temperature  in  the  Cape  region  is  53 0  F.,  i.e.  40  F.  higher  than  that  of 
Lisbon. 

3  I.e.  the  leopard.  It  is  still  quite  common  in  Cape  Province.  Vide  W.  L. 
Sclater,  The  Mammals  of  South  Africa,  vol.  I,  pp.  34-8. 

*  I.e.  Prasum  Promontorium,  Ptolemy’s  “  farthest  south  ”  in  East  Africa : 
it  is  commonly  regarded  as  being  identical  with  C.  Delgado  to  the  south  of 
Zanzibar. 

*  Vide  Introduction,  p.  xx. 


CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  AFRICA 


155 

this  country  answers  to  Ptolemy’s  description  of  the  said 
mountains,  so  that  they  appear  to  be  one  and  the  same.  For 
these  reasons  the  Cape  is  easy  to  find ;  it  can  also  be  found  by 
the  course  of  the  sun,  for,  at  whatever  time  of  the  year  a  person 
may  be  here,  the  sun  will  always  be  to  the  north  of  him  and  the 
shadow  to  the  south,  the  exact  contrary  of  what  happens  in  the 
part  of  the  world  in  which  we  live,  for  with  us  the  sun  is  always 
to  the  south  and  the  shadow  to  the  north.  At  this  promontory 
Africa  comes  to  an  end  in  the  Ocean  [i.e.  Atlantic],  and  is 
divided  from  Asia1 ;  from  this  point  the  boundary  of  Africa  runs 
due  north  following  the  course  of  the  Nile,  through  the  midst 
of  the  Ethiopias  of  Trogouditas3  to  Damiata  on  the  sea  of 
Egypt;  here,  near  Libya  it  turns  and  follows  the  coast  of 
Carthage  until  it  terminates  in  the  great  city  of  Cepta ;  thence  it 
follows  Tingitania  and  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  Ethiopias 
of  Guinea,  as  described  in  this  book,  until  it  comes  to  an  end 
again  in  the  Cabo  de  Boa  Esperan^a,  as  we  stated  in  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  chapter  of  the  first  book.  This  is  the  circumference 
of  Africa,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  painting  of  the  map  of  the  world 
and  general  description  given  in  that  chapter.  The  circumference 
of  Africa  is  3,850  leagues;  its  length,  beginning  at  the  Rio  de 
Qanagud  and  running  due  east  to  the  river  Nile,  is  840  leagues; 
its  breadth,  going  due  south  from  Tripoli  in  Berbery  to  the  sea 
of  Guinea  at  the  Rio  dos  Escravos,  is  500  leagues;  and  this  is 
its  circumference,  length  and  breadth,  as  we  have  said,  and  these 
are  its  boundaries  and  coasts,  which  do  not  have  gulfs  running 
into  them,  as  they  do  in  Europe  and  Asia.  All  this  we  have 
ascertained  in  great  detail.  On  this  promontory  of  Boa  Esperan$a 
herbs,  like  those  of  Portugal,  are  to  be  found :  for  here  there  is 
much  mint  and  camomile  and  cress ;  there  are  also  many  other 
herbs  of  the  same  nature  as  those  in  this  country  [i.e.  Portugal]. 

*  In  book  I,  chap.  5,  Pacheco  indicates  the  limits  of  Africa  commencing  at 
the  mouth  of  die  Nile.  In  conformity  with  the  general  classical  view  he  makes 
the  Nile  the  continental  frontier  and  since  the  Nile  rose  in  the  "Mountains 
of  the  Moon  ”  which  he  erroneously  identifies  with  the  mountains  of  Cape 
Province,  it  was  quite  natural  that  he  should  regard  the  Cape  as  the  southern 
boundary  point. 

1  I.e.  the  Troglodytes  (or  cave-dwellers)  who  according  to  Herodotus  and 
later  writers  inhabited  a  mountainous  region  in  the  Sahara  near  the  Gara- 
mantes,  some  30  days’  journey  south  from  Tripoli. 


156  PROJECTED  DESCRIPTION  OF  ASIA 

There  are  also  wild  olives,  oaks  and  heather  which  yields  berries, 
and  other  trees  like  ours.  The  cause  of  this  [similarity]  is  the 
movement  of  the  sun  which  gives  life  to  all  things,  for  Lisbon 
is  about  the  same  number  of  degrees  north  of  the  Equator  as 
Cabo  de  Boa  Esperan^a  is  south  of  it ;  for  this  reason  Portugal 
and  this  country  are  alike  in  their  trees  and  herbs  and  fruits. 
However,  the  seasons  are  opposite ;  when  it  is  winter  here,  it  is 
summer  there,  and  when  it  is  summer  here,  it  is  winter  there; 
for  the  sun  in  its  movement  away  from  us,  and  towards  us,  being 
the  same  degrees  distant  from  the  Equator  towards  the  Cape  as 
towards  the  other  [i.e.  Lisbon]  produces  the  same  herbs  and 
fruits  and  trees,  although  the  seasons  are  different,  as  we  have 
learnt  by  experience.  Aqui  tnapa. 


Chapter  viii 

Concerning  t)ie  routes ,  landmarks  and  degrees  as  far  as 
Ilheo  da  Cruz ,  where  the  discoveries  of  the  most  serene  King 
John  II  ended. 

Having  now  described  Africa  and  Ethiopia  and  their  circum¬ 
ference,  length  and  breadth  we  must  not  omit  Asia,  even  though 
it  is  so  large  that  the  greater  part  has  always  remained  unknown 
both  to  the  ancients  and  to  us  modems  who  have  discovered 
a  good  part  of  it.  We  will  only  write  of  the  part  navigated  at 
the  command  of  this  most  serene  King  our  lord,  who  discovered 
Ethiopia  under  Egypt  and  a  great  part  of  the  Arabian  Gulf  and 
the  Persian  Gulf  and  all  the  coast  of  Persia  and  a  great  part  of 
India.  We  will  begin  at  Cabo  de  Boa  Esperan9a,  where  Africa 
is  divided  from  Asia,  describing  the  coast  to  Ilheo  da  Cruz, 
where  our  third  book  containing  the  discoveries  of  the  excellent 
King  John  II  ends.  Our  fourth  and  fifth  books  will  deal  with 
the  discoveries  of  our  Emperor  Manuel,  as  we  promised  towards 
the  end  of  our  first  Prologue.  We  will  describe  the  routes  and 
landmarks  of  this  coast  and  the  latitudes  of  its  harbours  and 
rivers,  each  in  its  proper  order. 


MOSSEL  BAY 


*57 

Item.  It  is  apparent  from  our  illustration  and  painting  of 
Cabo  de  Boa  Esperan^a  that  the  bay  or  gulf  formed  by  the  cape 
turns  eastwards.  Fifteen  leagues  eastwards  from  the  front  of 
this  cape  is  the  point  called  Ponta  de  Sam  Brandam1,  lying  in 
the  same  parallel  as  the  cape;  the  coast  between  them  rims  in 
a  straight  line ;  it  is  almost  flat,  but  inland  are  some  high  rocky 
mountains  which  continue  a  great  part  of  the  way. 

Item.  Beyond  Ponta  de  Sam  Brandam  is  another  point  called 
Ponta  do  Infante*,  beyond  which  is  an  islet  a  quarter  of  a  league 
from  the  mainland;  on  all  this  coast  there  is  much  fishing. 
Ponta  de  Sam  Brandam  and  Ponta  do  Infante  lie  ENE  and 
WSW  and  occupy  seventeen  leagues  of  the  route;  we  believe 
that  there  is  no  commerce  or  barter  in  this  land  and  will  therefore 
not  describe  it  in  greater  detail. 

Item.  Twenty  leagues  beyond  Ponta  do  Infante  there  is  a 
cape  called  Cabo  das  Vacas3,  so  called  because  of  the  many  cows 
seen  here.  It  lies  east  and  west  with  respect  to  the  aforesaid 
Ponta  do  Infante  and  is  20  leagues  along  the  route  as  mentioned. 

Item.  Three  leagues  beyond  Cabo  das  Vacas  is  a  large  bay, 
four  or  five  leagues  round,  called  Angra  de  Sam  Bras4 ;  the  coast 
from  Cabo  de  Boa  Esperan^a  to  this  bay  runs  ENE  and  WSW 
half  the  way  and  the  rest  of  the  way  to  the  bay  NE  by  E  and 
SW  by  W,  the  latitude  of  Angra  de  Sam  Bras  being  350  20' 
south.  In  this  bay  is  an  islet5  close  to  the  shore,  on  which  there 
are  many  very  large  sea- wolves,  which  have  the  shoulders,  necks 
and  manes  of  lions6 ;  there  are  also  in  this  islet  sea-birds?  larger 
than  ducks,  covered  with  feathers  but  without  wings  for  flying 
and  their  voice  resembles  the  braying  of  an  ass.  This  bay  is 
protected  from  all  the  winds  except  those  from  the  ENE  to  the 
SE  which  blow  across  the  bay  and  make  the  sea  very  rough  when 
they  blow  with  violence.  To  the  west  this  bay  has  a  point  of  land 

1  I.e.  Cape  Agulhas,  340  49'  S. 

*  Still  known  in  a  corrupted  form  as  Cape  Infanta  (340  28'  S.). 

3  I.e.  Cape  Vacca.  4  I.e.  Mossel  Bay. 

5  I.e.  Seal  Island. 

6  I.e.  the  Cape  Sea-Lion:  “the  old  males  have  a  well-developed  mane  of 
long  hairs  all  round  the  neck:  the  females. .  .have  no  trace  of  the  mane” 
(vide  W.  L.  Sclater,  The  Mammals  of  South  Africa,  vol.  I,  p.  120). 

7  I.e.  the  Jackass  Penguin  ( vide  A.  Stark  and  W.  L.  Sclater,  The  Birds  of 
South  Africa,  vol.  iv,  pp.  518-19). 


MOSSEL  BAY 


158 

with  some  rocks  on  it  which,  when  one  is  out  at  sea,  seem  islets, 
and  one  of  them  is  like  a  small  turreted  castle1.  This  is  the  first 
thing  you  see  on  approaching  the  said  bay.  The  length  of  this 
point  is  rather  more  than  a  crossbow-shot  and  from  this  point 
a  reef  of  rock  runs  out  into  the  sea,  a  quarter  of  a  league  in 
length,  and  when  the  sea  is  rough  it  breaks  on  it ;  it  almost  closes 
the  mouth  of  the  bay.  A  mountain-range  comes  down  to  the 
sea  at  this  low-lying  point  of  land. 

Item.  A  small  river*  flows  into  this  Angra  de  Sam  Bras ;  it 
flows  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea,  and  on  its  banks  grow  reeds 
and  rushes,  mint,  wild  olives  and  other  herbs  and  trees  like 
those  of  this  kingdom  [i.e.  Portugal].  Our  crews  can  here  take 
in  water  and  wood,  cows,  sheep  and  goats,  which  the  negroes 
will  sell  to  them  for  brass  basins,  small  bells  and  red  cloth; 
but  one  must  guard  against  the  negroes  of  this  land,  for  they 
are  very  wicked  and  have  several  times  attempted  to  kill  our 
crews,  and  he  who  lands  here  should  beware.  Anyone  entering 
this  bay  may  anchor  within  the  reef  in  four  and  a  half  fathoms 
on  a  clean  sandy  bottom  a  little  over  a  quarter  of  a  league  from 
the  shore.  Four  or  five  leagues  out  to  sea  from  this  bay  he  will 
find  twenty-five  and  thirty  fathoms,  on  a  muddy  bottom  mixed 
with  sand ;  there  is  plentiful  fishing  here. 


Chapter  ix 

Concerning  the  routes  and  latitudes  from  Angra  de  Sam 
Bras  to  Ilheo  da  Cruz  and  on  to  Rio  do  Infante. 

The  time  and  trouble  spent  by  us  in  composing  this  work  have 
been  well  employed,  since  we  were  so  fortunate  as  to  have  to 
describe  the  discoveries  of  the  late  glorious  prince,  King  John. 
And  although  the  coast  discovered  at  his  command  yields  no 
profit,  we  must  not  blame  him  for  this ;  the  blame  lies  with  the 
land,  which  is  almost  deserted  and  produces  nothing  to  make  the 

'  The  rocks  of  Cape  St  Blaize  ( vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  XIX,  p.  81,  9th 
edition). 

*  Hartenbosch  River  (?). 


PLETTENBURG  BAY 


159 

heart  of  man  glad.  The  less  profit  the  region  discovered  by  him 
yields,  the  greater  praise  is  due  to  him;  for,  had  he  obtained 
great  wealth  from  these  regions,  there  would  not  have  been 
lacking  censors  and  critics  to  say  that  he  made  the  discoveries 
in  his  own  interest ;  but  since  we  know  that  his  only  profit  was 
the  great  expense  and  the  opening  of  a  way  for  the  discovery  of 
India,  we  are  confident  that  the  enterprise  of  this  most  serene 
prince  was  induced  by  love  of  glory  and  magnificence  and  a 
desire  to  explore  lands  hitherto  utterly  unknown,  and  by  no 
other  cause.  Having  said  this,  we  will  proceed  with  our  plan. 

Item.  Fifteen  leagues  beyond  Auguoada1  de  Sam  Bras  is  the 
small  bay  called  Angra  d’Alaguoa*,  so-called  because  it  has  a 
marshy  lake.  All  the  land  along  the  coast  from  Auguoada  de 
Sam  Bras  to  this  bay  is  flat,  but  inland  there  are  very  high 
mountains*.  Angra  de  Sam  Bras  and  Angra  d’Alaguoa  lie  east 
and  west  15  leagues  along  the  route,  as  stated,  and  this  small 
bay  contains  an  islet4  where  many  sea- wolves  and  many  birds 
live.  All  this  land  is  thinly  wooded  and  moderately  populated, 
but  there  is  no  trade. 

Item.  Angra  d’Alaguoa  and  another  larger  bay*  containing 
two  lakes  lie  ENE  and  WSW  and  occupy  twelve  leagues  of  the 
route.  Only  small  vessels  can  enter  this  Angra  d’Alaguoa, 
because  of  its  many  shallows;  its  latitude  is  34$°  south  of  the 
Equator.  No  profit  is  to  be  obtained  from  this  land,  so  that 
I  will  not  waste  time  in  describing  it  further. 

Item.  From  Angra  d’Alaguoa  to  Angra  do  Rico6  is  fifteen 
leagues  in  an  E  by  NE  direction.  Whoever  comes  this  way  should 
beware  of  two  dangerous  shallows  of  rock  on  which  the  sea 
breaks  about  half-way  along  the  route,  nearly  a  league  from  the 
shore.  The  Angra  do  Rico  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  above- 
mentioned  Angra  de  Sam  Bras ;  it  can  be  recognised  by  the  three 

*  I. e.  “  the  watering-place.” 

*  Plettenburg  Bay.  The  mouth  of  the  Pisang  River,  which  enters  the  bay,  is 
frequently  closed  by  a  bar;  behind  this  the  waters  accumulate  to  form  a 
temporary  lake. 

3  These  are  the  Outeniqua  Mountains  ( vide  Africa  Pilot,  Part  ill,  p.  92). 

*  I.e.  Beacon  Islet. 

5  St  Francis  Bay.  The  lakes  of  which  Pacheco  speaks  are  formed  by  the 
overflow  of  the  waters  of  the  bar-obstructed  rivers. 

6  I.e.  Algoa  Bay. 


i6o 


DISCOVERIES  OF  B.  DIAS 


islets  at  its  entrance;  the  bottom  in  places  is  dirty  and  a  ship 
anchoring  there  should  take  soundings. 

Item.  Five  leagues  beyond  the  Angra  do  Rico  is  an  islet  a 
little  over  half  a  league  from  shore,  called  Penedo  das  Fontes, 
because  Bertholameu  Diaz,  who  discovered  this  land  at  the 
command  of  the  late  King  John,  found  two  springs  of  excellent 
fresh  water  here;  but  this  rock  is  called  also  Ilheo  da  Cruz1, 
because  the  same  Bertholameu  Diaz  placed  here  a  pillar  of 
stone2  a  little  taller  than  a  man  with  a  cross  on  top  of  it  and  a 
triple  inscription,  in  Latin,  Arabic  and  Portuguese,  declaring 
that  in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  i486  (and  in  so  many 
years  after  the  creation  of  the  world),  King  John  ordered 
Bertholameu  Diaz,  captain  of  his  ships,  to  discover  this  coast. 
This  pillar  can  be  seen  out  at  sea  when  one  is  near  the  island. 
The  mainland  round  this  island  consists  of  sand-dunes  but  the 
adjoining  land  beyond  these  dunes  is  all  very  green  and  low, 
with  woods  and  some  fields.  Beyond  this  land  along  the  coast 
there  is  nothing  but  sand-dunes,  some  large,  some  small.  This 
Ilheo  da  Cruz  is  nearly  half  a  league  from  the  shore ;  the  coast 
from  Angra  do  Rico  thither  runs  NE  by  E  and  SW  by  W  and 
occupies  5  leagues  of  the  route,  as  we  have  said.  The  latitude  of 
the  said  Penedo  das  Fontes  is  330  45'  south  of  the  Equator. 

Item.  Twenty-five  leagues  beyond  the  Ilheo  da  Cruz  is  a 
small  river  called  Rio  do  Infante^,  so  called  because  when  it  was 
discovered  by  Bertholameu  Diaz  a  certain  Joham  Infante,  a 
member  of  his  crew,  was  the  first  to  land.  Eight  or  ten  leagues 
from  the  Ilheo  da  Cruz  are  two  islands  called  Ilheos  Chaos4; 
they  lie  two  and  a  half  leagues  from  the  shore.  The  landmarks  of 
this  region  are  these :  the  sand-dune  coast  two  leagues  beyond 
the  Ilheo  da  Cruz,  and  a  black  patch  on  the  mainland  having  a 
large  sand-dune  to  the  north  and  a  tongue  of  black  coloured 
land  along  the  shore,  which  appear  when  these  Ilheos  Chaos  are 
to  the  NE.  These  islets  are  almost  on  a  level  with  the  sea,  but 

1  St  Croix  Island,  but  cf.  Ravenstein,  op.  at.  p.  646. 

*  No  “padrio”  has  ever  been  recovered  from  this  neighbourhood.  It  is 
possible  that  Pacheco  is  confusing  St  Croix  Island  with  Cape  Padrone,  some 
little  distance  to  the  east,  where  Dias  set  up  a  stone  pillar  dedicated  to 
S.  Gregorio. 

3  I.e.  Great  Fish  River. 


4  I.e.  Bird  Islands. 


DEATH  OF  JOHN  II  l6l 

inland  the  country  is  very  elevated.  From  here  to  the  Rio  do 
Infante  is  fifteen  leagues ;  midway  there  are  the  mouths  of  three 
small  rivers1.  At  this  Rio  do  Infante  the  navigation  and  dis¬ 
covery  of  the  late  King  John  ended.  This  river  and  the  Ilheo 
da  Cruz  lie  NE  by  E  and  SW  by  W,  25  leagues  apart,  as  already 
stated.  The  latitude  of  the  river  is  320  40'  south  of  the  Equator. 

This  most  serene  prince  died  in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  1495  in  the  town  of  Alvor  in  Algarve  on  the  25th  day 
of  October.  The  years  of  his  life  were  forty  years  and  five 
months  and  twenty-five  days,  of  which  he  reigned  only  fourteen 
years,  one  month  and  twenty-eight  days.  He  is  buried  in  the 
monastery  of  Santa  Maria  da  Vitoria  (which  is  also  called 
“  Batalha”)  with  his  father  King  Afonso  V,  in  the  Chapel  of 
the  Chapter. 

*  Viz.  Bushman,  Kariega  and  Kowie  Rivers. 


HK 


XZ 


FOURTH 


BOOK 


The  beginning  of  the  fourth  book  of  the 
Esmeraldo  De  Situ  Orbis,  concerning  the  dis¬ 
coveries  of  the  most  serene  prince,  King  Manuel  our 
lord ,  the  first  of  this  name  to  reign  in  Portugal.  Here 
follows ,  firstly ,  the  Prologue. 

Although  the  nature  of  the  subject  permits  us  to  finish  the 
work  we  have  begun  and  our  spirit  is  willing,  our  scholarship  is 
so  poor  that  we  cannot  attempt  to  fully  describe  the  excellence 
of  our  Emperor  Manuel.  For  as  agriculture  promises  sustenance 
to  mortal  men,  even  so  great  deeds  promise  them  an  eternity  of 
noble  fame.  The  singular  qualities  with  which  he  was  endowed 
by  nature  are  universally  known;  for  justice  tempered  with 
moderation  was  given  him  as  a  rich  garment,  and  plentiful 
wisdom  to  administer  it  in  a  manner  worthy  of  praise.  He  was 
benevolent  towards  his  subjects,  being  easy  of  approach  and 
kindly,  yet  from  his  youth  he  was  marvellously  fearless  withal 
and  he  performed  great  deeds  with  manly  spirit  and  unstinting 
generosity.  He  was  a  Catholic,  living  a  pure  and  honest  life, 
keeping  strictly  the  holy  vow  of  matrimony  and  conjugal 
chastity ;  therefore  Our  Lord  blessed  him  with  noble  offspring. 
He  was  the  first  King  of  Portugal  to  beseech  the  Holy  Father, 
Pope  Alexander  VI,  to  give  a  dispensation  to  the  Knights 
Commanders  of  the  Order  of  Christ  and  of  S.  Bento  in  these 
realms,  to  allow  those  who  from  that  time  took  the  habit  in  these 
Orders  to  marry,  which  request  was  granted.  (Before  this  the 
professed  friars  were  strictly  forbidden  to  marry.)  The  service 
rendered  to  God  in  this  by  this  most  serene  prince  is  worthy 
of  continual  praise,  for  whereas,  when  they  were  unable  to 
marry,  they  kept  mistresses  and  there  was  much  lust  and  sin, 
they  are  now  allowed  to  marry.  Portugal  must  be  considered 
fortunate  to  possess  so  great  a  blessing ;  for  it  is  certain  that  this 
our  prince  was  given  us  by  divine  grace  for  the  tranquillity  and 


1 1-2 


CHARACTER  OF  MANUEL  I 


164 

good  governance  of  our  country,  and  this  favour  was  granted 
at  the  hand  of  the  supreme  Creator,  Who  sent  him  from  His 
altars  and  holy  places.  The  greatness  of  his  excellence  is  such 
that  it  ill  befits  our  poor  understanding  to  undertake  the  heavy 
task  of  recording  his  praises;  rather  we  must  leave  the  main 
part  of  them  for  the  writer  of  his  chronicle.  As  we  have  written 
the  three  books  concerning  the  other  princes  who  undertook 
and  began,  without  accomplishing,  this  navigation  and  conquest 
of  the  route  to  India,  we  will  proceed  to  write  the  fourth  and 
fifth  books  from  the  beginning  of  King  Manuel’s  conquest  and 
discovery  of  the  new  lands  in  the  strange  regions  of  Asia  and 
the  shores  of  India,  which  the  princes  of  old,  his  predecessors, 
and  even  earlier  princes  of  other  nations,  with  all  their 
wealth,  knowledge  and  courage,  were  never  able  to  reach.  In 
the  second  chapter  below  we  will  tell  how  the  first  fleet  was 
fitted  out,  which  finally  discovered  the  hitherto  unknown 
Ethiopia  under  Egypt  and  the  distant  kingdoms  of  India, 
regions  and  lands  which  it  is  pleasanter  to  hear  about  than  to 
explore.  The  device  of  this  prince — a  sphere  which  we  set  here — 
was  clearly  a  prophecy  of  what  we  have  seen  in  the  attainment 
of  his  Highness’  ambition.  May  God  increase  his  glory. 

Aqui  a  esphera. 


Chapter  i 

How  some  ancient  writers  declared  that  the  region  of  the 
Equator  and  the  adjacent  country  were  uninhabitable. 

Our  own  predecessors  and  those  wTho  lived  even  earlier  in  other 
countries  could  never  believe  that  a  time  would  come  when  our 
West  would  be  made  known  to  the  East  and  to  India  as  it  now  is. 
The  writers  who  spoke  of  those  regions  told  so  many  fables 
about  them  that  it  seemed  utterly  impossible  that  the  seas  and 
lands  of  India  could  be  explored  by  the  West. 

Ptolemy  in  his  portrayal  of  the  ancient  tables  of  cosmography 
writes  that  the  Indian  Sea  is  like  a  lake1,  far  removed  from  our 
1  Geographic,  book  vn,  chap.  5. 


HABITABILITY  OF  TORRID  ZONE  165 

western  Ocean  which  passes  by  southern  Ethiopia;  and  that 
between  these  two  seas  there  was  a  strip  of  land1  which  made 
it  completely  impossible  for  any  ship  to  enter  the  Indian  Sea. 
Others  said  that  the  voyage  was  so  long  as  to  be  impossible  and 
that  there  were  many  sirens  and  great  fishes  and  dangerous 
animals  which  made  navigation  impossible. 

Both  Pomponius  Mela  (at  the  beginning  of  the  second  book 
and  also  in  the  middle  of  the  third  book  of  his  De  Situ  Orbis *) 
and  Master  John  Sacrobosco,  an  English  writer  skilled  in  the 
art  of  astronomy  (at  the  end  of  the  third  chapter  of  his  treatise 
on  the  sphere^),  said  that  the  country  on  the  Equator  was 
uninhabitable  owing  to  the  great  heat  of  the  sun,  and  since  it 
was  uninhabitable  for  this  reason  it  could  not  admit  of  navigation. 
But  all  this  is  false  and  we  have  reason  to  wonder  that  such 
excellent  authors  as  these,  and  also  Pliny*  and  other  writers  who 
averred  this,  should  have  fallen  into  so  great  an  error;  for  they 
all  allow  that  India  is  the  real  East  and  that  its  population  is 
without  number.  Since  the  real  East  is  the  Equator,  which 
passes  through  Guinea  and  India,  and  since  the  greater  part  of 
this  region  is  inhabited,  the  falsehood  of  what  they  wrote  is 
clearly  proved,  for  at  the  Equator  itself  experience  has  shown 
us  that  the  land  is  thickly  populated.  Since  experience  is  the 
mother  of  knowledge,  it  has  taught  us  the  absolute  truth;  for 
our  Emperor  Manuel,  being  a  man  of  enterprise  and  great 
honour,  sent  out  Vasco  da  Guama,  Commander  of  the  Order 
of  Santiaguo,  one  of  his  courtiers,  as  captain  of  his  ships  and 
crews  to  discover  and  explore  those  seas  and  lands  concerning 
which  the  ancients  had  filled  us  with  such  fear  and  dread;  after 
great  difficulty,  he  found  the  opposite  of  what  most  of  the 
ancient  writers  had  said.  Passing  beyond  Rio  do  Infante,  where, 
as  we  have  said  the  discoveries  and  navigation  of  the  most  serene 
King  John  ended,  Vasco  da  Guama  sailed  with  his  four  ships 
round  the  unknown  coast  of  Ethiopia  under  Egypt  and  dis¬ 
covered  the  Ethiopian  town  of  Melinde,  where  he  heard  news 

1  Part  of  “  Terra  Australis  ”  of  later  reports,  believed  to  extend  right  round 
the  world. 

*  Actually  the  references  come  in  book  1,  chap.  4,  and  book  in,  chap.  7. 

*  Traclatus  de  Sphaera. 

4  Op.  cit.  book  u,  chap.  68. 


l66  DISCOVERY  OF  INDIA 

of  the  India  he  was  in  search  of;  thence  journeying  700  leagues 
across  the  great  gulf,  he  discovered  a  part  of  the  sought-for  land 
of  Lower  India. 


Chapter  ii 

Concerning  the  four  ships  which  our  lord  the 
King  sent  to  discover  India. 

It  was  not  desirable  that  too  many  or  too  large  ships  should  be 
sent  out  on  this  voyage  of  discovery;  accordingly  our  lord  the 
King  ordered  the  construction  of  four  ships,  the  largest  not  to 
exceed  a  hundred  tons,  for  the  land  being  utterly  unknown  it 
was  unnecessary  that  they  should  be  larger.  The  reason  was  that 
they  might  be  able  to  enter  and  leave  any  place  on  the  coast 
easily,  which  they  could  not  do  if  they  were  larger.  They  were 
built  by  excellent  masters  and  workmen,  with  strong  nails  and 
wood;  each  ship  had  three  sets  of  sails  and  anchors  and  three 
or  four  times  as  much  other  tackle  and  rigging  as  was  usual.  The 
cooperage  of  the  casks,  pipes  and  barrels  for  wine,  water, 
vinegar  and  oil  was  strengthened  with  many  hoops  of  iron.  The 
provisions  of  bread,  wine,  flour,  meat,  vegetables,  medicines, 
and  likewise  of  arms  and  ammunition,  were  also  in  excess  of 
what  was  needed  for  such  a  voyage.  The  best  and  most  skilful 
pilots  and  mariners  in  Portugal  were  sent  on  this  voyage,  and 
they  received,  besides  other  favours,  salaries  higher  than  those 
of  any  seamen  of  other  countries.  The  money  spent  on  the  few 
ships  of  this  expedition  was  so  great  that  I  will  not  go  into  detail 
for  fear  of  not  being  believed.  The  only  return  received  by  the 
prince  for  this  outlay  was  the  knowledge  that  some  part  of 
Ethiopia  under  Egypt  and  the  beginning  of  Lower  India  had 
been  discovered.  Thus  Vasco  da  Guama  set  out  on  this  holy 
enterprise  as  captain-in-chief  of  four  ships  by  virtue  of  the 
sacred  majesty  of  this  most  serene  prince,  who  sent  him  forth 
from  the  excellent  city  of  Lisbon  on  Saturday  the  eighth  day 
of  June  in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  1497;  he  returned 
two  years  one  month  and  one  day  later  and  forthwith  received 


ANNUAL  EXPEDITIONS  TO  INDIA 


167 

great  rewards  and  favours,  with  such  honour  and  liberality  as 
became  the  excellence  of  our  Emperor  Manuel,  who  sent  him 
out.  For  his  Highness  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Dom  Vasco 
da  Guama,  which  he  did  not  previously  possess,  and  gave  him 
a  coat  of  arms  to  honour  his  nobility;  this  serene  prince  also 
made  him  Admiral  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  with  jurisdiction  over 
it,  and  gave  him  an  income  of  3,000  gold  crusados,  besides  other 
favours,  revenues,  honours  and  exemptions.  Thus  his  reward  to 
Dom  Vasco  for  the  great  services  which  he  had  rendered  was  in 
keeping  with  the  magnanimity  of  his  nature,  endowed  as  he  was 
with  great  goodness. 


Chapter  iii 

Concerning  the  fleets  which  our  lord  the  King  sends  out 
yearly  to  India  since  its  discovery . 

Great  achievements  cannot  be  hidden,  for  they  are  seen  by  all, 
and  their  praise  must  be  recorded  so  that  they  should  not  fall 
into  oblivion ;  achievements  so  great  as  those  of  this  most  serene 
prince  have  every  reason  to  be  made  known.  His  Highness 
orders  the  equipment  of  great  fleets  of  twenty-five  and  thirty 
large  ships,  more  or  less  according  to  the  times  and  occasions; 
they  are  well  manned  and  equipped,  as  well  as,  if  not  better 
than,  the  first  ships  sent  out.  With  these  he  has  conquered,  and 
daily  conquers,  the  Indian  seas  and  the  shores  of  Asia,  killing, 
destroying  and  burning  the  Moors  of  Cairo,  of  Arabia  and  of 
Meca  and  other  inhabitants  of  the  same  India,  together  with 
their  fleet,  by  which  for  over  800  years  they  controlled  their 
trade  in  precious  stones,  pearls  and  spices.  Not  only  has  he 
done  this,  but  he  has  ordered  the  construction  of  five  fortresses 
with  their  holy  houses  of  prayer,  where  the  blessed  sacrament 
of  the  body  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is  daily  celebrated.  As  a 
result  many  Indians,  who  were  formerly  ignorant  of  it,  have  been 
converted  to  the  holy  Catholic  faith  and  have  become  Christians, 
and  the  evil  sect  of  Mahomet  is  daily  being  destroyed  and 
diminished.  The  Moors  and  their  fleet  are  so  confounded  that 


INDIAN  TRADE 


168 

the  Venetians,  who  were  accustomed  to  obtain  spices  and  other 
merchandise  from  them  and  furnish  Europe  and  Africa  and  part 
of  Asia,  are  now  totally  deprived  of  this  trade.  But  this  fortunate 
prince,  besides  the  great  honour  and  eternal  fame  from  his  many 
victories  in  the  conquest  of  these  regions,  receives  yearly  from 
his  fleet  30,000  to  40,000  quintals1  of  spices  and  drugs,  and 
many  pearls  and  precious  stones  and  other  articles  of  great  value, 
with  which  the  whole  world  is  furnished.  Thus  we  may  say  that 
Almighty  God  by  a  singular  privilege  chose  him  from  all  the 
other  princes  of  Christendom  to  spread  His  Catholic  faith 
through  these  regions  for  His  service.  For  it  is  certain  that  the 
holy,  divine  and  ancient  religion  disseminated  in  these  parts  by 
the  apostle  St  Thomas3  has  been  entirely  lost.  We  and  our 
successors  in  the  future,  and  all  nations,  must  observe  this 
marvellous  and  miraculous  fact,  that  the  4,000  leagues  of  perilous 
navigation  between  Portugal  and  India  were  conquered  and 
subdued  and  our  Catholic  faith  spread  through  them  at  the 
bidding  of  this  most  serene  prince.  This  is  certainly  the  doing 
of  Our  Lord,  Who  gave  him  the  strength  of  spirit  and  wisdom 
for  so  great  an  enterprise;  for  achievements  so  great  were  never 
performed  by  a  timid,  weak  or  avaricious  person,  but  only  by 
a  man  of  courage  and  magnanimity.  And  when  one  considers 
achievements  as  great  as  these,  the  famous  deeds  of  Alexander 
the  Great  and  of  the  Romans  are  partly  obscured  by  this  great 
and  holy  conquest. 


Chapter  iv 

Concerning  the  voyage  and  navigation  of  ships 
bound  for  India. 

In  three  months  of  the  year  principally  should  ships  bound  for 
India  be  ready  to  sail,  January,  February  and  March;  and  the 
best  of  these  is  February,  although  ships  sometimes  sail  as  late 
as  April  and  make  a  prosperous  voyage;  but  they  should,  if 

1  The  Portuguese  equivalent  of  the  English  hundredweight. 

*  Vide  book  1,  Prologue,  p.  5  note. 


SEA  ROUTE  TO  INDIA 


169 

possible,  avoid  this  month,  for  it  is  rather  late  and  they  may 
encounter  difficulties  on  such  a  long  voyage.  The  fleet  for  India 
should  have  all  its  casks,  pipes,  barrels  and  other  vessels  re¬ 
inforced  with  hoops  of  iron,  eight  iron  hoops  to  each  barrel, 
for  hoops  of  wood  do  not  last  long.  Of  provisions  I  do  not 
speak,  for  it  is  known  by  now  what  is  required  for  a  voyage  which 
usually  lasts  eighteen  or  twenty  months.  In  the  twenty-third 
chapter  of  our  first  book  we  have  stated  that  a  fleet  leaving  the 
excellent  city  of  Lisbon,  in  which  I,  the  author,  Duarte  Pacheco, 
was  born,  and  where  the  fleets  for  the  navigation  to  India  are 
fitted  out,  should  sail  SSW  200  leagues,  when  they  will  be  in 
latitude  28°  north,  off  the  seven  islands  of  the  Canaries.  The 
fleet  can  pass  these  at  a  league,  or  much  less  than  a  league,  from 
Ponta  d’Andia1  in  the  Isle  of  Forte  Ventura  and  will  then 
steer  S  by  E.  After  forty-five  leagues  it  will  make  the  Angra 
dos  Ruivos  on  the  mainland,  the  landmarks  of  which  we  have  de¬ 
scribed  in  the  twenty-third  chapter  of  the  first  book ;  they  are  the 
three  hills  of  sand  which  rise  above  it,  and  its  latitude,  25 0  north 
of  the  Equator.  Three  leagues  off  this  bay  there  is  fifty  fathoms 
of  water  with  a  sandy  bottom,  and  here  there  is  plentiful  fishing 
for  the  sustenance  of  the  crews.  And  from  here  the  fleet  must  sail 
along  the  coast  in  search  of  Cabo  Verde  as  we  shall  say  below. 

Item.  By  standing  three  leagues  out  at  sea  from  Angra  dos 
Ruivos  and  sailing  SW  by  S  along  the  coast,  without  touching 
land  for  ninety  leagues  it  will  be  off  Cabo  Branco,  of  which  we 
spoke  in  the  last  paragraph  of  the  23rd  chapter  of  the  first  book. 
The  cape  will  then  be  eighteen  leagues  distant  to  the  East,  the 
latitude  at  that  exact  point  being  220  20'  north;  the  pilot  must 
be  careful  to  take  the  latitude  accurately  in  order  to  avoid  all 
possibility  of  error. 

Item.  The  ship  which  is  in  this  position  off  Cabo  Branco 
must  now  sail  120  leagues  S  by  E;  it  will  then  be  off  Cabo  Verde, 
that  is,  1 40  20'  north  of  the  Equator.  The  cape  will  be  recognised 
by  its  latitude  and  by  the  painting  and  landmarks  which  we  gave 
in  the  28th  chapter  of  the  first  book.  You  can  anchor  here  and 
take  in  water  and  wood  in  the  Angra  de  Bezeguiche,  as  you  will 
see  in  the  said  chapter  and  illustration. 

*  I.e.  Jandia  Point. 


170 


Chapter  v 

Concerning  the  ocean  route  to  India  from  Cabo  Verde. 

For  the  better  understanding  of  our  work  we  should  state  that 
the  basis  of  the  work  was  first  to  describe  the  whole  of  the  coast 
of  Ethiopia  of  Guinea  and  to  tell  of  its  discovery  by  the  princes 
mentioned  in  this  book,  at  whose  command  the  navigation  of 
these  parts  was,  and  still  is,  undertaken.  We  have  already 
described  the  route  along  the  coast  to  Rio  do  Infante,  where  the 
discoveries  and  navigation  of  the  late  most  serene  King  John 
ended.  There  is,  however,  another  shorter  and  more  advantageous 
route  from  Cabo  Verde  across  the  ocean  to  India;  it  must 
therefore  be  described,  so  that  nothing  of  importance  shall  be 
left  unsaid.  From  Rio  do  Infante  we  will  describe  the  coast  in 
the  direction  of  India  which  our  lord  the  King  discovered. 

Item.  A  ship  bound  from  Cabo  Verde  to  India  should,  with 
a  favouring  wind,  sail  due  south  600  leagues,  at  the  end  of  which 
it  will  be  190  south  of  the  Equator;  from  this  point,  which  is 
850  leagues  from  Cabo  de  Boa  Esperanfa,  its  course  should  be 
ESE.  In  this  way  it  will  double  the  cape  forty  leagues  out  to 
sea,  in  a  latitude  of  370  south,  Cabo  de  Boa  Espcran^a  then  being 
to  the  NE  by  N,  which  is  the  direct  course  to  the  cape.  It  is 
only  when  the  pilot  is  370  south  that  he  should  steer  NE,  for  if 
the  latitude  is  less  he  will,  by  so  doing,  turn  back  to  the  coast 
of  Guinea,  except  when  he  is  in  a  latitude  of  350  south,  when  the 
cape  will  be  to  the  E  and  he  will  be  opposite  it.  When,  after 
reaching  the  latitude  of  370  south,  he  has  steered  NE  and  come 
in  sight  of  the  cape,  he  must  then  coast  along  the  shore  to  the 
Rio  do  Infante;  this  route  is  described  in  the  eighth  chapter  of 
the  third  book  and  in  the  succeeding  paragraphs.  If  he  wishes 
to  stand  fifteen  or  twenty  leagues  out  to  sea,  he  may  do  so,  but 
he  should  act  throughout  with  caution  and  await  favourable 
winds;  when  the  wind  is  adverse,  reason,  prudence  and  ex¬ 
perience  will  teach  him  what  should  be  done.  In  crossing  the 
ocean  from  Cabo  Verde  he  should  keep  a  sharp  look-out  night 
and  day  for  the  great  thunderstorms,  which  are  accompanied  by 


SEA  ROUTE  TO  INDIA 


I7I 

winds  of  extraordinary  violence;  as  soon  as  anyone  sees  a  flash 
of  lightning  or  a  black  cloud  he  should  furl  sail  until  the  violence 
of  the  wind  is  past,  for  if  he  fails  to  do  this,  the  ship  may  be 
wrecked,  as  others,  through  carelessness,  have  been  wrecked 
before  it. 


Chapter  vi 

Concerning  the  discoveries  of  our  King  beyond 
the  Rio  do  Infante. 

Our  new  task  is  to  describe  the  discoveries  of  the  most  serene 
prince  King  Manuel  our  Sovereign  beyond  the  Rio  do  Infante, 
including  the  whole  of  Ethiopia  under  Egypt,  Arabia  Felix, 
Persia  and  the  manifold  interests  of  the  most  wealthy  kingdoms 
of  India,  together  with  the  victories  obtained  there.  Thus  we 
will  proceed  with  our  plan  on  this  toilsome  journey,  relating  the 
truth  as  we  have  learned  it  from  experience. 

Item.  Rio  do  Infante  lies. . . [the  MS  breaks  off  here]. 


APPENDICES  ItoIII 

I.  THE  SENEGAL- NIGER-NILE  CONTROVERSY 

It  is  evident  from  his  various  allusions  to  the  Senegal  that 
Pacheco  shared  the  prevailing  confusion  about  the  hydro- 
graphical  systems  of  West  Africa. 

The  idea  of  a  western  branch  of  the  Nile  was,  of  course,  not 
new:  it  had  been  put  forward  in  antiquity  (e.g.  by  Pliny,  who 
made  the  branch  rise  in  the  Atlas  Mountains,  Natural  History, 
book  v,  chap.  io).  Moreover  it  was  not  altogether  without 
foundation,  for  as  early  as  Herodotus’s  time  some  young 
Nasamonian  travellers  had  penetrated  southwards  across  the 
Sahara  to  “a  great  river. .  .running  from  west  to  east...” — 
presumably  the  Niger  (Herodotus,  History ,  book  u,  chap.  32). 
For  the  most  part,  however,  classical  opinion  followed  Ptolemy, 
who  held  the  Nile  and  Sudanese  systems  to  be  discrete. 

It  was  not  until  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  that  the  idea 
of  a  western  branch  of  the  Egyptian  Nile  was  seriously  put 
forward  again — this  time  by  Arab  geographers  who  were  in 
possession  of  the  latest  knowledge  of  the  Saharan  caravan  routes. 
Edrisi,  although  not  discussing  the  subject  directly,  leaves  the 
reader  in  no  doubt  as  to  his  own  view.  Thus,  he  says  “  the  Nile 
in  this  country  [i.e.  W.  Sudan]  flows  from  the  east  to  the  west.” 
Ships  entering  its  mouth  with  salt  “ascend  as  far  as  Silla, 
Tacrour,  Barisa  and  Ghana.”  Following  the  Nile  eastwards  he 
speaks  of  “  a  place  where  the  two  Niles  separate,  that  is  to  say, 
first  the  Nile  of  Egypt  which  crosses  the  country  from  north 
to  south . . .  and  second  the  branch  which  flows  from  the  east 
and  flows  towards  the  western  extremity  of  the  continent” 

{Description  de  VAfrique  et  de  rEspagne _ Translation  by  R. 

Dozy  and  M.  J.  de  Goeje,  passim).  Leo  Africanus,  the  last  of  the 
great  mediaeval  Arab  geographers,  makes  the  following  observa¬ 
tions:  “our  cosmographers  affirm  that  the  river  of  Niger  is 
derived  out  of  Nilus,  which  they  imagine  for  some  space  to  be 
swallowed  up  of  the  earth  and  yet  at  last  to  burst  forth  into. . . 


APPENDIX  I 


174 

a  lake. . . .  Some  others  are  of  opinion  that  this  river  beginneth 
westward  to  spring  out  of  a  certain  mountain  and  so  running 
east,  to  make  at  length  a  huge  lake,  which  verily  is  not  like  to 
be  true,  for  they  usually  sail  westward  from  Tombuto  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Guinea,  yea  and  to  the  land  of  Melli  also...” 
( History  of  Africa ,  book  I,  p.  125). 

With  increasing  knowledge  of  the  West  African  littoral,  other 
alternatives  were  proposed.  John  Pory,  in  his  Introduction  to 
Leo’s  History  of  Africa ,  written  about  1600,  says:  ‘‘The  river 
of  Niger,  running  through  the  land  of  the  Negroes ...  is  now 
esteemed  by  Paulus  Iovius  to  be  Gambra  and  by  Cadamosto  the 
river  of  Senega :  but  that  both  of  them  are  deceived,  it  is  evident 
out  of  the  description  of  Sanutus,  who  putteth  down  the  two 
aforesaid  rivers  severally  and  thinketh  Niger  to  be  that  which  is 
now  called  Rio  Grande  [i.e.  Jeba  R.].  This  river  taketh  its 
beginning,  as  some  think,  out  of  a  certain  desert  to  the  east, 
called  Seu,  or  springeth  rather  out  of  a  lake  and  after  a  long 
race,  falleth  at  length  into  the  western  ocean. . . .  Senega,  or 
Canaga,  a  most  notable  river... for  the  length  thereof  com¬ 
parable  to  Nilus. .  .springeth,  according  to  John  Barros,  out  of 
two  lakes,  the  greater  whereof  is  now  called  the  lake  of  Gaoga. . . 
as  also  out  of  a  river  named  by  Ptolemy  Ghir. . . .  Gambra  or 
Gambea,  a  very  great  river  lying  between  Senega  and  Niger. . . 
fetcheth  his  original  from  the  lake  of  Libya  and  from  the  foun¬ 
tains  which  Ptolemy  assigneth  to  the  river  of  Niger. . .”  (pp.  19 
et  seq.). 

The  recrudescence  of  the  idea  of  a  dual  Nile  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  Middle  Ages  is,  in  view  of  the  prominent  part  played 
by  the  Senegal-Niger  systems  in  trans-Saharan  commerce, 
readily  understood.  The  fact  that  it  was  not  until  the  nineteenth 
century  that  the  separateness  of  the  Senegal  and  the  Niger 
Rivers  from  one  another  and  from  the  Nile  was  discovered  ceases 
to  be  surprising  when  we  recall : 

(а)  The  relative  decline  of  trans-Saharan  commerce  after  the 
opening  up  of  the  sea  routes. 

(б)  The  reluctance  of  the  negro  native  to  enlighten  the  trader, 
whether  Moslem  or  Christian,  on  the  country  beyond  the 
Savannah  Zone — the  source  of  his  gold  (vide  Appendix  No.  III). 


APPENDIX  II 


175 

( c )  The  change  in  the  character  of  the  country  south  of 
the  latitude  of  Timbuktu  and  its  general  unsuitability,  both 
climatically  and  botanically,  to  the  desert-loving  Arab  and  his 
desert-loving  camel. 

( d )  The  confusion  of  the  native  negroes’  terms  for  lake,  water 
and  river,  leading  traders  to  conclude  that  all  the  great  Sudanese 
rivers  were  inter-linked  by  great  lakes  in  which  they  had  their 
sources. 

II.  “THERE  ARE  OTHER  SNAKES  A  QUARTER 
OF  A  LEAGUE  LONG” 

In  this  single  statement,  startling  in  its  departure  from  the 
author’s  well-deserved  reputation  for  sobriety,  Pacheco  reveals 
both  the  vitality  of  mediaeval  mythology  and  the  credulity  of  the 
Renaissance  mind.  That  men  should,  in  the  same  breath,  be  able 
to  speak  with  almost  the  exactitude  of  a  modern  Pilot  book 
about  the  navigability  of  the  Senegal  River  and  the  existence  of 
mile-long  serpents  is  not  very  remarkable,  however,  when  we 
recall  the  popularity  of  the  “Mirabilia” — wonder  books — and 
the  “Bestiaries”  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  The  reading  of 
these  enchanted  not  only  the  common  people,  but  men  of 
education,  and  inspired  the  pictorial  illustration  of  many  of  our 
most  famous  “mappae  mundi,”  e.g.  the  Hereford  and  Ebstorf 
maps.  Pliny’s  Natural  History ,  Solinus’s  Collectanea  and  the 
Treatise  on  Marvels ,  attributed  to  Aristotle,  were  among  the 
most  read  works  of  the  time.  Aristotle’s  authority  was  so  great 
with  the  Portuguese  of  the  fifteenth  century  that  even  the 
Proctors  of  the  People  were  quoting  his  work  in  the  Cortes  ( vide 
Santarem,  quoted  in  Zurara,  op.  cit.  Hakluyt  Society  Edition, 
p.  338).  The  seamen  of  our  period,  therefore,  were  steeped  in 
the  teratological  traditions  of  antiquity,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
over-emphasise  the  domination  exercised  in  mediaeval  and  early 
Renaissance  thought,  in  geography,  natural  history  and  eth¬ 
nology,  as  well  as  in  other  departments,  by  the  pseudo-science 
of  the  “Mirabilia.”  Zurara  comes  under  it,  even  though  he  is 
somewhat  more  cautious  than  Pacheco.  In  chap.  52  he  tells  us, 
for  instance,  that  the  hornbills  of  the  Ilha  das  Garzas  (i.e.  Heron 


APPENDIX  III 


176 

Isle  near  Tider  Isle)  have  “ mouth  and  maw. . . so  great  that  the 
leg  of  a  man,  however  large  it  were,  would  go  into  it  as  far  as 
the  knee.”  In  chap.  60  he  further  declares  that  the  size  of  the 
African  elephant  is  “  so  great  that  the  flesh  of  one  would  make 
a  good  meal  for  2,500  men.” 

Where  did  Pacheco  derive  the  authority  for  his  statement? 
Strabo  speaks  of  Ethiopian  serpents  whose  length  he  does  not 
define  but  which  are  “so  large  that  even  grass  grows  upon  their 
backs”  (1 Geography ,  book  xvii,  chap.  3,  para.  5).  Pliny,  another 
of  his  standard  authorities,  speaks  of  serpents  ‘‘that  seize  and 
swallow  birds  that  are  flying  above  them,  however  high  and  how¬ 
ever  rapid  their  flight  ”  (Natural  History ,  book  vm,  chap.  14). 
With  such  imaginative  precedents  as  these,  it  was  not  difficult 
for  Pacheco  to  persuade  himself  of  the  existence  of  even  larger 
reptiles.  It  would  seem,  however,  from  his  remarks  about  the 
incredibility  of  these  things  to  those  that  have  no  experience  of 
them  that  he  expected  some  of  his  readers  to  be  less  credulous 
than  others. 


III.  THE  SILENT  BARTER 

The  silent  barter  of  the  Sudan  which  Pacheco  describes  at  such 
length  is  as  old  as  it  is  mysterious;  moreover,  literature  and 
tradition  show  it  to  have  been  a  widespread  commercial  custom 
between  peoples  who  did  not  know  or  entirely  trust  each  other. 
Herodotus  described  it  as  being  a  well-established  practice  in 
his  day  (History,  book  iv,  chap.  196),  and  we  read  of  it  in  various 
forms  at  intervals  thereafter.  Cosmas  Indicopleustes  wrote  of 
it  in  the  sixth  century,  Edrisi  in  the  twelfth,  Cadamosto  in  the 
fifteenth,  Captain  G.  F.  Lyon  in  the  early  nineteenth,  and  Mary 
Kingsley  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century.  Yet  one  and 
all  are  unable  to  claim  personal  acquaintance  with  the  parties 
engaging  in  it,  and  only  very  few  of  them  actually  encountered 
first-hand  evidence  of  it. 

Where  was  the  land  of  this  barter?  It  is  not  without  signi¬ 
ficance  that  Pacheco  tells  us  the  distance,  but  not  the  direction ; 
it  was  from  the  frontiers  of  Mandingua.  Edrisi  is  no  more 
helpful,  for  he  only  says  that  it  was  8  days’  journey  from  Ghana, 


APPENDIX  III 


177 

again  without  giving  the  direction.  (Moreover  Ghana  is  a  lost 
city.)  However,  with  the  help  of  Cadamosto’s  narrative  {op.  cit. 
pp.  57~8)  and  a  statement  of  R.  Jobson’s  {op.  cit.  p.  301)  the 
region  of  the  Upper  Volta  would  seem  to  be  the  rendezvous  of 
the  silent  traders.  The  Bobo-fing  and  Lobi  tribes  who  inhabit 
it  and  collect  alluvial  gold  are  even  to-day  described  as  being 
very  taciturn  and  retiring,  and  have  only  recently  allowed 
African  traders  into  their  country.  It  is  furthermore  a  region 
infested  by  the  tse-tse  fly  and  therefore  unhealthy  for  man  and 
beast,  and  it  lies  in  the  tall  grass  savannah  zone,  that  is,  in  the 
frontier  zone  between  Moors  and  Berbers  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  negroes  on  the  other.  As  these  “frontier”  peoples  were 
frequently  raided  by  their  northern  neighbours  and  sold  into 
captivity,  it  is  scarcely  to  be  wondered  at  that  they  should  prefer 
to  remain  unseen  when  bartering  their  gold;  but  whether  the 
Sudanese  slave  trade  gave  rise  to  the  silent  barter  or  no,  we  have 
no  means  of  telling.  According  to  one  recent  observer,  it 
originated,  in  all  probability,  from  a  sense  of  personal  insecurity 
and  has  fetish  in  it,  the  natives  holding  it  safer  to  leave  so 
dangerous  a  thing  as  trafficking  writh  unknown  beings — white 
things  that  were  most  likely  spirits,  with  the  smell  of  death  on 
them — in  the  hands  of  their  gods  {vide  M.  Kingsley,  West 
African  Studies,  pp.  210-12). 

If  mystery  surrounds  the  exact  location  of  the  gold  marts,  it 
has  succeeded  in  completely  enveloping  the  participants  in  this 
trade.  How  came  it  about  that  these  traffickers  were  thought  to 
be  dog-headed?  Two  possibilities  suggest  themselves.  In  the 
first  place  the  Arab  designation  for  the  pagans  of  this  region 
(the  Lemlem  of  Arab  writings)  was  “  Benicaleb  ” — son  of  a  dog! 
Several  early  Renaissance  maps  of  this  region  portray  a  cyno- 
cephalic  monarch  south  of  the  western  Nile  and  east  of  the  black 
(but  Moslem)  king  of  Melli  {vide  Este  and  Borgian  World  maps). 
The  second  possibility  is  that  the  men  with  "the  faces  and  teeth 
of  dogs  and  tails  like  dogs”  are  not  men  at  all  but  baboons  1 
These  animals  have  a  remarkably  dog-like  face  and  one  species 
of  them — West  Africa  boasts  of  several — has  a  tail  and  a  black 
face  (i.e.  the  Anubis  baboon).  Further,  these  animals  wander 
about  in  companies,  excavating  the  roots  of  grasses  and  other 


HK 


12 


APPENDIX  III 


178 

plants  and  leaving  small  holes  behind  them  ( vide  H.  O.  Forbes, 
A  Handbook  of  the  Primates ,  vol.  I,  pp.  253  et  seq.y  and  S.  Zucker- 
man,  Social  Life  of  Monkeys  and  Apes ,  p.  203).  The  fact  that  the 
whole  transaction  was  concluded  without  any  direct  intercourse 
and  at  night ,  may  well  have  given  rise,  in  the  minds  of  the  greatly 
intrigued  Moors,  to  the  notion  that  the  invisible  traders  were 
not  ordinary  men,  but  akin  to  the  shy  and  elusive  baboons  of 
which  they  had  doubtless  caught  many  a  fugitive  glimpse.1 

1  A  fuller  discussion  on  the  source  of  the  gold  and  the  locality  of  the  silent 
barter  will  be  found  in  an  article  by  E.  G.  R.  Taylor,  entitled  “  Pactolus : 
River  of  Gold,”  Scottish  Geographical  Magazine,  1927. 


APP  ENDIX  IV 


NOTE  ON  THE  MAP  TO  ILLUSTRATE  THE 
ESMERALDO  DE  SITU  ORBIS  OF 
DUARTE  PACHECO 

By  W.  F.  MORRIS,  B.A., 

Lecturer  in  Cartography  in 
the  Utriversity  of  Heading 

The  map  represents  an  attempt  to  plot  the  coastal  route  from 
Ceuta  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  beyond,  as  worked  out  by 
the  Portuguese  navigators  during  the  fifteenth  and  very  early 
sixteenth  centuries,  and  described  in  the  text  of  the  Esmeraldo 
The  map  shows  also  the  coast  of  Africa  as  now  mapped,  so  that 
comparisons  may  be  made. 

It  is  drawn  on  two  sheets,  partly  for  convenience,  but  also 
because,  while  there  is  a  remarkable  measure  of  agreement 
between  Pacheco’s  coastal  outline  and  the  modern  map  north  of 
the  equator,  south  of  that  line  the  agreement  is  not  nearly  so 
close.  It  is  drawn  on  Mercator’s  projection,  for  the  following 
reasons :  (i)  the  most  reliable  element  in  the  plotting  of  Pacheco’s 
outline,  especially  north  of  the  equator,  would  seem  to  be  the 
bearings;  (2)  with  parallels  and  meridians  drawn  at  every  half¬ 
degree  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  plot  distances  with  reasonable 
accuracy;  (3)  plotting  Pacheco’s  and  the  modem  outline  upon  an 
orthomorphic  projection  enables  appreciation  and  comparison 
of  shapes  to  be  made.  Pacheco  furnishes  the  following  material 
from  which  to  plot:  compass  bearings,  distances  in  leagues, 
astronomical  latitudes  and  through  bearings.  He  also  describes 
landmarks  in  detail. 

Bearings.  Pacheco  uses  a  “card”  of  32  points,  on  two 
occasions  only  using  half-points.  His  bearings,  therefore,  are 
probably  correct  to  within  three  or  four  degrees  each  way, 
within  the  limits  of  the  accuracy  of  his  instruments.  From 
Arzila  to  Cape  Kantim  there  is  apparently  considerable  dis¬ 
crepancy  between  his  outline  and  the  modem  map.  From  the 


12-2 


APPENDIX  IV 


180 

latter  point  to  about  6°  S.  they  agree  remarkably  well.  South  of 
6°  S.  Pacheco’s  outline,  plotted  by  bearings  and  latitudes,  is  a 
fair  reflection  of  the  modem  outline,  but  it  deviates  steadily 
westwards,  until  in  the  latitude  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  there 
is  a  difference  in  longitude  of  slightly  more  than  four  degrees. 
There  would  appear  to  be  two  reasons  for  this:  (i)  the  greater 
body  of  knowledge  and  experience  possessed  in  respect  of  the 
journey  astfar  as  the  equator  by  comparison  with  that  available 
for  the  southern  part;  (2)  compass  variation. 

Pacheco  gives  no  indication  in  the  text  that  bearings  had  been 
rectified,  nor  does  he  mention  compass  variation,  though  he  and 
his  contemporaries  were  without  any  doubt  well  aware  of  it. 
“  For  the  navigation  of  Guinea  [the  Portuguese]  made  compasses 
corrected  for  a  deviation  north  and  a  quarter  north-east” 
(E.  G.  R.  Taylor,  Tudor  Geography ,  p.  68),  that  is,  for  a  magnetic 
variation  of  n£°  E.  This  means  that  while  the  needle  pointed  to 
nJ°E.  the  card  itself  was  correctly  oriented,  true  north  and 
south.  But  obviously  the  card  would  remain  correctly  oriented 
only  so  long  as  the  variation  was  constant.  As  the  variation 
changed  so  the  rectified  card  would  change  also.  Thus  Pacheco, 
south  of  Arzila,  gives  a  bearing  South  by  West  when  the  true 
bearing  is  much  nearer  S.S.W.  Evidently,  as  they  sailed  farther 
south,  the  variation  became  for  a  time  more  easterly,  so  the 
bearing  noted  would  be  south  of  the  true  bearing.  This,  and  not 
faulty  observation,  would  account  for  the  apparent  incorrectness 
of  the  coastal  outline  in  this  region.  Moreover,  such  variations, 
while  affecting  the  plot  of  the  route,  would  not  affect  navigation 
along  that  route,  providing  the  same  “make”  of  compass  were 
used,  and  magnetic  variation  in  a  given  region  remained  the 
same. 

Using  this  illustration  it  can  be  argued  that  from  Arzila  to 
Cape  Kantim  the  rectified  compass  swung  at  first  more  to  the 
east  and  then  recovered  itself,  and  that,  from  Cape  Kantim, 
as  far  as  6°  S.,  it  remained  approximately  true  to  itself.  There 
is  evidence  to  support  this  argument.  But  from  6°  S.  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  the  plot  by  bearings  and  latitudes  suggests 
a  marked  decrease  of  variation  eastward,  and  this  is  contraryto 
the  testimony  of  sixteenth-century  voyagers.  “In  the  island 


APPENDIX  IV 


181 

called  Insula  Corvi  [i.e.  Azores]  it  [the  compass]  declineth 
easterly  15  degrees”  (Cunningham’s  Cosmographical  Glasse , 
quoted  by  Professor  Taylor,  Tudor  Geography ,  p.  27).  Captain 
John  Lok,  writing  in  1554,  on  his  voyage  to  Guinea,  says, 
“Note  that  in  45  degrees  the  compass  is  varied  8  degrees  to  the 
west.  Item,  in  40  degrees  the  compass  did  vary  15  degrees 
(?  E.  or  W.)  in  the  whole.  Item,  in  30  degrees  and  a  halfe  the 
compass  is  varied  5  degrees  to  the  weste”  (Hakluyt’s  Voyages , 
vol.  iv).  And  one  Thomas  Stevens,  writing  from  Goa  in  1579, 
describing  his  voyage  thither,  says,  “  The  variation  of  the  needle 
or  compass,  which  in  the  region  of  the  island  of  St  Michael  is 
just  north,  and  thence  swarveth  toward  the  east  so  much  that 
betwixte  the  meridian  aforesaid  and  the  point  of  Afrike  it 
carricth  three  or  four  quarters  of  32,  and  againe  in  the  point  of 
Afrike  a  little  beyond  the  point  that  is  called  Cape  das  Agulias  it 
retumeth  againe  unto  the  north,  and  that  place  passed,  it 
swarveth  again  towards  the  west,  as  it  did  before  proportionally” 
(Hakluyt’s  Voyages ,  vol.  iv).  It  is  unlikely  that  in  eighty  years 
compass  variation  in  these  latitudes  would  have  changed  from 
“  three  or  four  quarters  ”  eastward  to  almost  as  much  westward, 
especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  north  of  the  equator  the 
variation  remained  still  east.  There  is,  therefore,  a  discrepancy 
between  Pacheco’s  and  the  true  bearings,  in  these  latitudes, 
which  is  not  easily  explained. 

The  plot  by  direction  and  latitudes,  south  of  about  170  S., 
has  been  adjusted  for  a  general  average  decrease  of  magnetic 
variation  eastward  of  6°,  bringing  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
approximately  to  its  correct  longitude.  So  adjusted  the  plot 
gives  a  fair  reflection  of  the  modem  outline. 

Distances .  Pacheco  expresses  distances  in  leagues,  18  leagues 
to  a  degree  of  latitude.  This  was  not  the  generally  accepted 
Portuguese  figure,  which  was  17J,  but  Pacheco’s  was  the  more 
accurate. 

As  with  bearings,  so  with  distances.  As  far  as  Cape  Three 
Points  there  is  very  fair  agreement.  Between  Cape  Verde  and 
Cape  Palmas,  Pacheco’s  and  the  modern  outline  arc  almost 
identical.  From  Cape  Three  Points  eastwards  along  the  Guinea 
Coast  as  far  as  Fernando  Po  there  is  increasing  discrepancy,  and 


APPENDIX  IV 


182 

south  of  the  equator  distances  seem  to  have  gone  wrong  alto¬ 
gether.  It  must  have  been  difficult  to  estimate  distances  in  those 
days.  In  respect  of  the  coast  as  far  south  as  Sierra  Leone,  sailors 
had  gathered  much  information  about  winds,  currents  and  tides; 
they  had  had  many  years  in  which  to  check  their  results  and  to 
compare  notes  about  it;  the  behaviour  of  vessels,  more  or  less 
fresh  from  their  home  ports,  was  more  reliable.  In  equatorial 
regions  alternate  storms  and  calms  must  have  made  accurate 
reckoning  extremely  difficult.  Thomas  Stevens,  quoted  above, 
writes  about  this  part  of  his  journey  as  follows:  “We  arrived  at 
length  under  the  coast  of  Guinie . . .  which  is  from  the  sixt 
degree  of  the  equinoctial . . .  sometimes  the  ship  standeth  there 
almost  by  the  space  of  many  dayes,  sometimes  she  goeth,  but  in 
such  order  that  it  were  almost  as  good  to  stand  still.  And  the 
greatest  part  of  this  coast  not  cleare,  but  thickc  and  cloudy,  full 
of  thunder  and  lightening.”  Moreover,  they  were  sailing 
generally  east  and  west,  and  since  very  few  indeed  amongst 
them  could  find  longitude  at  all,  and  none  of  them  accurately, 
they  had  no  check  upon  the  amount  of  easting  made.  So 
Stevens  again:  “You  know  that  it  is  hard  to  saile  from  east  to 
west. .  .because  there  is  no  fixed  point  in  all  the  skie  whereby 
they  may  direct  their  course.  Wherefore,  partly  by  their  own 
experience  and  pondering  withal  what  space  the  ship  was  able 
to  make  with  such  a  wind  and  such  direction,  and  partly  by  the 
experience  of  others,  whose  books  and  navigations  they  have, 
they  gesse  whereabouts  they  be  touching  the  degrees  of  longi¬ 
tude,  for  of  latitude  they  be  alwayes  sure.”  And  this  was  in  1579. 

South  of  the  equator  Pacheco’s  distances  are  very  badly  out. 
It  can  only  be  assumed  that  he  had  very  much  less  information 
about  this  part  of  the  journey  and  so  had  no  check  upon  his 
figures.  In  any  case  he  was  evidently  of  the  opinion  that  distances 
were  not  to  be  trusted  too  far,  for  he  gives  detailed  descriptions 
of  landmarks,  and  numerous  sketches  to  reinforce  the  descrip¬ 
tions,  so  that  recognition  of  the  places  named  may  be  easy.  He 
says  also,  more  than  once,  that  the  surest  guide  to  the  position  of 
any  place  is  its  latitude  and  the  trend  of  the  coast  in  its  neigh¬ 
bourhood. 

The  effect  of  this  inaccuracy  with  regard  to  distances  south  of 


appendix  nr 


183 

the  equator  is  obvious  in  the  unadjusted  plot  of  bearings  and 
distances.  This  places  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  latitude 
26 S.,  eight  degrees  north  of  its  true  position,  144  leagues  by 
Pacheco’s  reckoning.  For  this  reason  the  plot  by  bearings  and 
latitudes  has  been  added,  and  this  gives  a  very  much  better 
result. 

Latitudes.  Pacheco  indicates  two  methods  of  finding  latitudes: 
(1)  from  the  altitude  of  the  pole  star,  and  (2)  from  the  height  of 
the  sun  at  noon,  taking  into  account  its  declination  north  or 
south.  The  instruments  at  his  disposal  were  the  astrolabe  and  the 
quadrant. 

John  II  of  Portugal  had  formed  a  junta  of  astronomers  and 
mathematicians  to  investigate  problems  concerned  with  the 
science  of  navigation.  They  had  addressed  themselves  particu¬ 
larly  to  the  simplification  of  nautical  instruments,  and  the 
determination  of  latitude  south  of  the  equator.  They  solved  the 
latter  problem  by  applying  the  method  of  finding  the  height  of 
the  sun  at  midday.  For  this  method  they  prepared  tables  of 
declination  for  the  use  of  sailors.  They  probably  got  these  tables 
from  the  Almanack  perpetuum ,  written  in  Hebrew,  between  1473 
and  1478  by  Abraham  Zacuto,  and  translated  by  Master  Joseph, 
who  also  may  have  produced  from  it  the  practical  manual 
Regimento  do  Astrolabio  e  do  Ouadrante.  This  last  was  printed 
before  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  and  was  still  in  use  in 
1 537  (Prestage,  Portuguese  Pioneers ,  p.  318).  By  the  proper  use 
of  these  instruments  and  tables  sailors  would  find  their  ap¬ 
proximate  position  as  regards  the  equator. 

Yet,  in  1500,  astronomical  observations  were  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule,  and  many  of  those  who  made  observations 
were  doubtful  about  their  results.  Master  John,  pilot  to  Cabral 
in  his  expedition  to  Brazil  in  1500,  writes:  “It  seems  to  me 
almost  impossible  to  take  the  height  of  any  star  at  sea  for  I 
labour  much  at  it  and  however  little  the  ship  rolls  there  are 
mistakes  of  four  or  five  degrees  so  that  it  can  only  be  done  on 
shore.  At  sea  it  is  better  to  be  guided  by  the  height  of  the  sun 
than  by  the  stars  and  it  is  better  to  use  the  astrolabe  than  the 
quadrant  or  any  other  instrument.” 

To  take  an  accurate  observation,  in  low  latitudes,  from  the 


APPENDIX  IV 


184 

deck  of  a  small  sailing  ship,  with  a  comparatively  high  centre  of 
gravity  and  therefore  prone  to  pitch  and  roll,  using  a  hand 
instrument  with  no  telescopic  sights  and  graduated  to  degrees 
only,  and  sighting  on  a  sun  almost  vertically  overhead,  must 
have  been  extremely  difficult,  and  to  get  the  latitude  correct  to 
within  a  degree  must  have  been  a  considerable  achievement. 

Pacheco’s  latitudes  are  therefore,  under  the  circumstances, 
extraordinarily  accurate.  He  fails,  inexplicably,  to  check  his 
distances  by  his  latitudes  and  vice  versa;  he  gives  what  are 
obviously  wrong  figures  for  Arzila,  3505o\  and  for  Rio  do 
Larache,  five  leagues  farther  south,  36°  10',  both  south  of 
Tangier,  which  he  places  in  latitude  350  15';  there  are  in¬ 
consistencies  in  the  latitudes  given  for  places  along  the  Guinea 
coast  and  one  serious  discrepancy  south  of  the  equator.  Apart 
from  these  blemishes,  however,  his  figures  are  very  accurate 
indeed,  averaging  little  more  than  40  minutes  out,  with  many  of 
the  most  important  points,  such  as  Cape  Verde  and  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  much  nearer  than  that. 

The  map,  therefore,  illustrates  the  great  skill  of  the  Portuguese 
as  navigators  and  the  excellent  results  obtained.  It  is  a  pity 
that  these  results  were  not  given  earlier  to  the  world,  so  that 
progress  in  Cartography  might  have  equalled  progress  in  naviga¬ 
tion  and  the  construction  of  instruments. 


INDEX 


Abila,  see  Serra  da  Ximeira 
Abrantes,  Marqueses  of,  xxx 
Acemsam,  island,  24 
Acre,  see  Ancron 
Afecr,  15 

Afonso  IV,  King  of  Portugal,  44 
Afonso  V,  King  of  Portugal,  passim-, 
character  and  achievements  of, 
103-105 

Afonso  XI,  King  of  Castille,  44 
Africa,  passim ;  boundaries  and  cir¬ 
cumference  of,  1 54-56 n;  divisions 
of,  18-20;  products  of,  36 
Agadir  Bay,  see  Narbaa 
Agenor  of  Libya,  15 
Agueda,  22 
Aguiloo,  Cape,  59,  60 
Agulhas,  Cape,  24 
Alaguoa,  bay,  159 
Alaguoa,  river,  115,  116 
Alaquequas,  blood  stone,  81,  88 
Albuquerque  (in  province  of  Bada- 
ioz),  22 

Albuquerque,  Afonso  d’,  xiii,  xiv, 


Alcaccrc  Ciguer,  xvi,  xvii,  37, 38, 39, 

Alcali,  2? 

Alcansatma,  21 
Alcantara,  23 
Aldeas.  bay,  24,  147 
Ale,  port,  85,  86 
Alentcjo,  73,  117 
Alexander  the  Great,  168 
Alexander  VI,  Pope,  163 
Alfonso,  see  Afonso 
Alfragano,  100,  107 
Algarve,  161 
Algeciras,  see  Aljazira 
Alhamiz,  51 

Alixandria  (Alexandria),  22 
Aljazira,  22 
Almadias,  bay,  72 
Almancora,  43,  44 
Almaria,  22 
Almedina,  51 
Almeria,  see  Almaria 
Almina,  Point,  36,  37,  38,  61 
Alquices,  Moorish  cloak,  60 
Alvor,  161 

Anburi  (Anbur  near  Barcelona?),  21 
Ancoras,  river,  91 


Ancron  (Acre?),  21 
Anda,  islands,  118 
An  dam,  port,  86 
Andeses,  Negro  tribe,  120 
Andia,  Point,  68,  169 
Anifee,  44,  45,  50 
Anjadiva,  island,  23 
Anjidiv,  island;  see  Anjadiva,  island 
Anterrote,  76 
Ante  us,  38 
Antilles,  xxiii 
Antipatcr,  141 
Antipodes,  xxiv,  10 
Antrefulcos,  Cape,  19,  46 
Antrelunho ,  31 
Anzica  (country),  144 
Arabia,  6,  57,  167 
Arabia  Felix,  17 1 
Arabian  Gulf,  2,  6,  36,  79,  140,  154, 
156 

Arabs,  69,  7®,  72,  74 
Area,  Cape,  76 
Areaccs,  149 
Argentina  (Strasburg),  22 
Arguim,  island,  70,  72;  hinterland 
of*  73“76 

Arguim,  shallows,  72,  77 
Aries  (Zodiac),  27 

Arraval  de,  42 

Arzila,  22,  40,  49,  140;  capture  of 
by  the  Portuguese,  xvi,  xvii,  39, 104 
Ascension,  island,  see  Acemsam, 
island 

Asia,  passim;  western  boundary  of, 

*5  .  „ 

Assyria,  6 

Aten^a  (Atienza  in  New  Castille),  22 

Atis,  Negro  tribe,  120 

Atlantic  Sea,  19,  155 

Atlantica,  19 

Adas  Mts.,  54,  58,  *9,  173 

Atlas  Mount,  19,  58,  59 

Audem,  60,  75 

Augusta  Vindelicor[um]  (Augs- 
berg),  22 
A  villa,  22 
Axem,  1 17,  1 18 

Azambuja,  Dieguo  [Diogo]  d’,  xiii, 

xvii,  52,  1 19 

Azamor,  45,  46,  47,  56 
Azcncgues,  69,  72,  74.  75.  79 
Azevedo,  Fernam  Lopez  de,  64 


i86 


INDEX 


Acevedo,  Pedro  de,  xxxi 
Azores,  64,  101 

Babylonia,  6,  21 
Bafoor  Mts.,  76 
Bahaa,  89 
Baixas,  Cape,  109 
Baixas,  country  of,  151 
Balamban,  ebony,  82 
Baldaya,  Afonso  Gonsalves,  68, 
69,  7* 

Balea,  bay,  24,  151 
Banbarranaa,  89 
Banhauus,  Negro  tribe,  94 
Barbaciis,  river,  86,  87 
Barbas,  Cape,  23,  70,  71 
Barbate,  river,  32 
Barcelona,  22 
Barisa,  173 

Barreiras,  river,  137,  138 
Barr  ocas,  Point,  40 
Barr  os,  Jo2o  de,  62  n 
Basto,  Raphael  de  Azevedo,  xxxi, 
xxxii 

Beafares,  92,  93 
Beetuu,  89 

Behaim,  Martin,  xxix 
Beifudos,  the  “thick-lipped”  people, 
116 

Belez  da  Guomeira,  46 
Benavente,  22 
Beni  caleb,  177 
Bensaude,  Joaquim,  xi 
Beny,  iax,  125-27,  145 
Berbers,  177 

Berbery  Coast,  22,  66,  132 
Berlengas,  islands,  52 
Bestiaries,  175 
Bety,  43 

Bezeguiche,  bay,  23,  83,  169 
Bintonba,  river,  96 
Bizcaya,  32 

Boa  Esperanfa,  Cape,  passim;  dis¬ 
covery  of.  153-54;  mountains  of 
(identified  with  Montes  Lunae), 
jot,  16,  154;  regarded  as  southern 
limit  of  Guinea,  79 
Boa  Vista,  island,  24,  84 
Boboflng,  Negro  tribe,  177 
Bogia,  see  Boje 

Bojador,  Cape,  2,  3,  23,  69;  dis¬ 
covery  of,  65-67 
Boje,  Kingdom  of,  81,  1:7 
Bona,  1 17 

Boroes,  Negro  tribe,  120 
Bota,  Negro  tribe,  134 
Boulooes,  97,  08,  106 
Braba,  island,  84 


Branco,  Cape,  23,  71.  72.  77.  169 

Bravas,  islands,  105 

Brazil,  land  of,  xiii,  xxii,  xxiii,  136 

Brazil,  dye  wood,  13 

Brcmus,  Negro  tribe,  120 

Brujas  (Bruges),  22 

Buam,  islands,  91 

Buarcos,  23 

Buda[pest]  in  Hungary,  22 
Buguubaa,  river,  93 
Bulanham,  51 
Burguos,  22 


Caabite,  river,  95 
Caaboo,  Negro  tribe,  134 
Caao,  Dieguo,  xxix,  142,  Itf,  147 
Cabral,  xin,  xxii,  xxiii,  xxviii 
Cabras,  islands,  145,  146 
Caya^a,  46 
Ciceres,  22 

Cacres,  Negro  tribe,  120 
Cadafalso  (Cadalso),  22 
Cadamosto,  174,  176,  177 
Cadiz,  see  Calez 
Caesar  Augustus,  8 
Cafy,  19.  SO.  St,  58 

Cairo,  18,  167 
Cali,  42,  43 
Calccut,  see  Calicut 
Calez,  1,  2,  23,  36,  140 
Calicut,  xiii,  xxiii,  23,  92 
Calpe,  see  Gibraltar 
Camardes,  river,  134 
Camboas,  Point,  145,  146 
Camelo,  Cape,  43 
Caminha,  23 

Sora,  22 

gua,  the  Palms  of,  76 
gua,  river,  passim ;  arm  of 
River  Nile,  17,  80;  source  and 
character  of,  78-83;  Senegal- 
Niger-Nile  controversy,  173-75 
Cananor  (India),  23 
Canary,  islands,  68,  169 
Cana  veal,  Point,  49,  50 
Cancer,  Tropic  of,  28,  30,  85 
Cancer  (Zodiac),  27 
Canopus,  18 
Candm,  Cape,  23,  49,  53 
Cantor,  87 

Cao,  Diogo,  see  CaSo,  Dieguo 
Cape  Sines,  see  Ho  de  Sines 
Capes,  Negro  tribe,  94 
Capricorn,  Tropic  of,  28,  30,  149 
Capricorn  (Zodiac),  27 
Captor,  22 
Caribbean  Sea,  xxii 
Cartagena,  23 


INDEX  187 


Carthage,  140 

Carvoeiro,  Cape,  71 

Casa  do  Cavaleiro,  48,  49 

Casamansa,  river,  90 

Case,  river,  95,  96 

Castello  Real,  52,  53 

Castillc,  44,  47 

Castro,  Joao  dc,  xxvi 

Catay  (Cathay),  x8 

Caterina,  Cape,  3,  127,  138,  141 

Cavallos,  bay,  23,  68 

Cebu,  42 

Cclius,  141 

Cepta,  xvi,  x8,  22,  32,  36,  37,  38,  39, 
46,  47,  56,  58.  61,  155 
Cestos,  river,  23,  109,  xio,  112 
Ceuta,  see  Cepta 
Cezilia  (Sicily),  21,  too 
Chalam,  forest  of,  77 
Chaldea,  6 
Chios,  islands,  160 
Chaul,  see  Xaul 
China,  see  Chis 
Chios,  see  Xio 
Chis,  18 
Cithas,  6,  15,  18 
Clear  Mts.,  see  Atlas  Mts. 

Cobales,  108 
Cochim,  see  Cochin 
Cochin,  xiii,  23 
Coelho,  Gon5aIo,  xxii 
Coeyta,  si 

gofala,  4,  24,  79 
ollonha  Agripina  (Cologne),  22 
Colonia,  23 ;  see  also  Collonha 
Agripina 

Columbus,  Christopher,  xxxii 
Comceip9am,  bay,  24,  150,  151 
Conguo,  Kingdom  of,  143 
Constancia,  22 
Constantinople  [a],  15,  22 
Cooro,  market  of,  81 
Cor90,  Cape,  122,  123 
Cordova,  22 
Cori  Mori,  islands,  24 
Corisco,  island,  135 
Correntes,  Cape,  24 
Corte  Real,  Gas  par,  xxii,  xxiii, 
xxiv 

Cortcsao,  Jaime,  xvii,  xxviii 
Corvoeiro,  Cape,  7  x 
Cosmas,  Indicopleustes,  176 
Costa,  Fontoura  da,  xii 
Coulam,  23 
Covilan,  22 
Coya,  98,  108 
Crass  us,  Marcus,  5 
Cristal,  river,  95 


Cruz,  island,  4, 6,  24, 156;  discovery 
of,  160,  x6x 
Cuencua,  22 

Cunha,  Rodrigo  da.  Bishop  of 
Oporto,  mi 

Dacia,  see  Norway,  18 

Damasco,  21 

Damiata,  21,  155 

Daroca,  23 

David,  King,  xx 

Delgado,  Cape,  24 

Demosthenes,  7 

De  Situ  Orbis,  see  Mela 

Dias,  Epiphanio  da  Silva,  xvii 

Diaz,  Bertholameu,  151,  X53,  160 

Diaz,  Denis,  78 

Dobancoo,  88 

Dogface  people,  89 

Don,  river,  see  Tanais,  river 

Duquella,  47 

Ecija,  22 
Edrisi,  173,  176 
Egipto,  see  Egypt 
Eguorebo,  Negro  tribe,  114 
Egypt,  in,  16,  17,  ax,  73 
Egypt,  sea  of,  80,  155 
Elam,  6 

Emcuqua-anzico,  Lord  of  Anzica, 
144 

Emsery,  lake,  74 
Emzaze  (Congo),  river,  143 
Encalhor  (£anagu£),  river,  78 
Enciso,  xix 
Enqee,  96 

Escobar,  Pedro  d\  118,  13371 
Escravos,  coast  of,  xi2,  113 
Escravos,  river,  3,  23,  128,  155 
Esdras,  prophet,  13 
Esmeralda  deSitu  Orbis,  8 ;  date  of,  xvi, 
xvii;  meaning  of  name,  xvii-xviii; 
MSS.  and  editions  of,  xxx-xxxii 
Espartel,  Cape,  23,  38,  39,  49 
Estevez,  Alvaro,  1x8 
Estevez,  Martin,  118 
Estora,  117 

Ethiopia,  passim'.  Lower  Ethiopia, 
19,  67,  68,  78;  Upper  Ethiopia, 
68,  79;  discovery  of,  61  et  seq., 
148,  150;  Ethiopia  under  Egypt, 
4,  150,  15a,  156,  164,  166,  171; 
Ethiopias  of  Guinea,  2,  18,  36, 105, 
120,  132,  136,  137,  IS5.  *791 
Ethiopias  of  Trogouditas,  155 
Ethiopians,  73,  80,  100,  107;  con¬ 
version  of,  63,  141 ;  explanation  of 
colour  of,  9 


1 88 


INDEX 


Eudoxus,  2,  6,  36,  140 
Eugene  IV,  2,  63,  64 
Europe,  xxv,  6,  12,  13,  19.  35.  *55; 
boundaries  of,  15,  18;  excellence 
of,  20 

Evora,  xxxi 

Evora,  Soeyro  Mendez  d\  72 
Exale,  42 
Exnouvia,  42 
Ezarziguy,  75 


Faleiro,  Francisco,  xxvi 
Faleiro,  Ruy,  xxvi 
Falulo,  01 
Famenda,  94 
Fante,  the  Greater,  122 
Fante,  the  Less,  122 
Fayal,  island,  23 
Fedala,  43,  44 

Feez,  22,  42,  81 ;  Kingdom  of,  46  et 
seq. ;  produce  and  trade  of,  56,  57 
Feleuu,  81 
Fermosa,  bay,  24 

Fermoso,Cape.  23,  nx,  130, 131,133 

Fermoso,  river,  23,  12s,  127,  128 

Fernahu,  island,  24 

Femam  do  Poo,  133 

Femam  do  Poo,  island,  23, 133, 134 

Fernandez,  Ruy,  58 

Fernando,  King  of  Portugal,  44 

Ferrarias  Mts.,  51 

Finis  Terra,  Cape,  xiv,  12,  23 

Flanders,  66,  112 

Flemings,  xxviii,  112,  113 

Foguo,  island,  84 

Forcados,  river,  128,  129,  130 

Fomilho,  41 

Forte  Ventura,  island,  23,  68,  169 
Freytas,  Lanfarote  de,  78 
Frio,  Cape,  24 
Furna  d'Acicor,  45,  46 


Gaditanian,  coast,  15,  18 
Gaditanian  Straits,  35 
Galinhas,  river,  107 
Galiza  (Galicia  in  Spain),  32 
Gama,  Vasco  da,  xvi,  165,  x66,  167 
Gambia,  river;  tee  Guambea,  river 
Ganboas,  river,  105 
Ganges,  18 
Gaoga,  lake,  174 
Garzas,  island,  175 
Geeguu,  city  of,  124 
Genesis,  11 

Genoese,  castle  of  the,  40 
Genova,  22 
Germany,  xxix 
Ghana,  173,  176,  177 


Ghir,  river,  174 
Gibandor,  country'  of,  87 
Gibraltar,  xv,  2,  35.  36,  144 
Gilliannes,  66,  67,  68,  69 
Gold,  the  silent  barter  in,  99,  176-78 ; 
trade  in,  75,  81,  88  et  seq.,  98,  118, 
120-21,  122 

Gon^alo  de  Sintra,  bay,  70,  71 
Gontjalvez,  Antcm,  75 
Good  Hope,  Cape  of,  see  Boa 
Esperanca,  Cape 
Graada  (Granada),  22,  66 
Grana  Paradisy,  maleguette  pepper, 
108 

Grande,  river,  23,  79.  *74;  descrip¬ 
tion  of,  91  et  seq Negroes  of,  92, 
93.  94.  96 

Guabam,  river,  24,  135,  136 
Guabuu  (Guambea),  river,  88 
Guadalajara,  23 
Gualcc,  rock,  71 

Guama,  Vasco  da,  see  Gama,  Vasco 
da 

Guambea,  river,  23,  80,  90,  174; 

hinterland  of,  87-89 
Guardafune,  Cape,  6,  73,  79 
Guer,  Cape,  23,  53,  55.  60 
Guinea,  xiii,  xix,  3,  70,  7*.  77,  79, 
133,  141,  165,  170,  174;  discovery 
of,  101 ;  gold  from,  50,  55,  59,  75  5 
inhabitants  of,  136,  144,  154; 
Portuguese  trade  with,  xxviii,  74 
Guinea  Ocean  (Southern  Atlantic), 
136,  X55 

Guoguliis,  92,  93,  94 
Guorguonas  (Azores),  10 1 

Hacanys,  Negro  tribe,  120 
Haguost,  60 
Hahytemosy,  60 
Ha  lagunas,  41 
Ham,  son  of  Noah,  14 
Hanno,  2,  6,  3611,  140 
Haranha,  79 
Harcfees,  river,  24 
Harouchc,  105 
Hazamor,  22 
Hazara,  see  Sahara 
Hellespont,  15 

Henry,  Prince,  xii,  3, 6, 60, 63, 68-72, 
75,  78,  85,  98,  105,  146,  150; 
achievements  of,  too,  101;  at 
Ceuta,  xvi,  6x;  character  of,  61, 
62;  discovery  of  Madeira  by,  2; 
revelation  of  God  to,  62 
Hercules,  35,  38 
Herodotus,  xx,  X73,  176 
Hesperides,  promontory  of,  83,  84 


INDEX 


189 


Hita,  see  Hvta 
Ho  de  Sines,  23 
Hoexantc,  23 
Homer,  m,  2,  7,  12 
Hooguanec,  King,  126 
Hudson,  strait,  xxii 
Huela,  Negro  tribe,  129 
Huguatoo,  town,  125 
Hyperborean  Mts.,  18 
Hyta,  22 

Ibn-al-Wardi,  xvii 
Idolos,  islands,  23,  94,  95,  97 
Iherosalem,  see  Jerusalem 
Ilheos,  islands,  no,  in 
India,  xxviii,  1,  3,  6,  36,  60,  68,  79, 
141,  150;  discovery  of,  4,  101,  148, 
1 154,  156,  164  el  seq.;  Pacheco  in, 
xiii,  xiv,  xvi;  pepper  of,  126,  127; 
Lower  India,  5,  166 
India  House,  xxix 
Indian  Sea  (Ocean),  164,  165,  167 
Indo  (Indus),  river,  79 
Infante,  river,  xix,  24,  160-61,  165, 
170 

Infante,  Point,  157 
Infante,  Joham,  160 
Iovius,  Pa  ulus,  174 

Italy,  51,  144 

,  aalomansa,  94 
.  aalunguas,  Negro  tribe,  94 
.  acob,  Bishop  of  Valencia,  n 
,  acome,  Master,  xii,  100 
,  aem,  23 
,  alancoo,  88 

'  alofo,  Kingdom  of,  78-80,  88,  101 ; 
Negroes  of,  72,  97,  154 
amnamsura,  88 
,  any,  80 

apheth,  son  of  Noah,  14 
cbcl  Hadid,  see  Ferrarias 
,  cru salem,  5,  21 
,  oham  Lopez  de  Sequeira,  55 
J  ohn  I,  King  of  Portugal,  xvi,  39,  61, 
63.  64 

John  n,  King  of  Portugal,  passim ; 
character  of,  139,  140;  death  of, 
1 61 ;  discoveries  of,  144  ct  setf. 
ohn  V,  King  of  Portugal,  xxxi 
os,  Negro  tribe,  129,  130,  132 
unco,  river,  109 

Kingsley,  Mary,  176,  177  „  . 

Kuna  Muna,  islands ;  see  Con 
Mori,  islands 

Lagea,  113 


Lagos,  in  Portugal,  118 
Laguo,  23,  123,  124 
Lama,  79 

Lanbens,  mantle,  117,  120 
Lancaster,  Duke  of,  61 
Larache,  40,  41 
Latirus,  King,  2 
Ledo,  Cape,  97,  99,  105,  106 
Legion  (Leon),  22 
Lemlem,  177 

Leo  African  us,  xxi,  173,  174 
Leo  (Zodiac),  84 
Libra  (Zodiac),  27 
Libya,  19,  155 
Licosaguou,  King,  126 
Lisboa,  see  Lisbon 
Lisbon, xiii, xiv,  xxiii,xxx,xxxi,xxxii, 
3,  22,  44,  60,  67,  68,  79.  1 18,  156, 
166,  169 
Liza,  39 

Lizards  (Crocodiles),  82,  89 
Lobi,  Negro  tribe,  177 
Logronho,  22 

Lopo  Gonpalvez,  Cape,  24,  134, 
135,  *36,  137 
Lorca,  22 

Ludca,  Arab  tribe,  75 
Lunae,  see  Mountains  of  the  Moon 
Lusitania,  province  of,  67 
Lyon,  Captain  G.  F.,  176 

Maabaar,  5 

Macareo,  tidal  bore,  91-92 
Machado,  Barbosa,  xxx,  xxxi 
Madeira,  2,  23,  64,  100 
Madrid,  23 
Maguadaxo,  23,  79 
Mahomet,  57,  74,  75,  80,  90,  92,  167 
Majorca,  100 
Malagueta,  3,  23,  106,  114 
Malipor,  5 

Mamora,  river,  41,  42 
Mandingua(s),  73,  79,  80,  88,  89, 
90,  92.  93.  97.  120,  154,  176 
Mangua  das  Areas,  24,  147 
Maniconguo,  4,  63,  143.  144.  *45 
Manuel  1,  Emperor,  passim;  cha¬ 
racter  of,  163,  164;  discoveries 
under,  150,  156,  165  et  seq. 
Maquinez,  47 
Marrocos,  50,  51 
Martellus,  Germanus,  xxix 
Martin  V,  Pope,  2 
Marzy,  village  of,  75 
Mastos,  Cape,  23,  85 
Mauretania,  19,  36 
Maurs,  see  Moors 
Mayo,  island,  84 


INDEX 


I90 

Mayo,  river,  1 16 

Mazaguam,  47,  48 

Meca,  in  Africa,  s6,  58,  59 

Meca,  in  Arabia,  ax,  167 

Meca,  river,  $6 

Medea,  6 

Medelim,  22 

Medina  del  Campo,  22 

Mediterranean  Sea,  xxi,  15,  18,  19, 

Mela,  Pomponius,  xvii,  xx,  2,  14, 
38,  68,  165 
Melilla,  19,  46 
Melinde,  23,  79,  165 
Melli,  174,  *77  #  . 

Meluya,  river,  46,  56 
Menclaus,  x,  6,  18,  36,  140 
Mcqua,  straits  of,  73,  79 
Merida,  22 
Meroe,  island,  xxi,  16 
Mesurado,  Cape,  108 
Mexico,  Gulf  of,  xxii 
Mina,  Casa  da  Lisbon,  74 
Mina,  see  S.  Jorze  da  Mina 
Mirabilia,  175 
Moguador,  island,  52,  53 
Mohammedans,  see  Moslems 
Mombasa,  24,  79 
Mondeguo,  river,  145 
Monos,  river,  108 
Monsombique,  24,  79 
Monte,  Cape,  23,  106,  107,  xo8 
Montes  Lunac,  see  Mountains  of 
the  Moon 

Moors,  passim;  of  Berbery,  132; 
capture  of  Arzila  from,  104,  140; 
capture  of  Ceuta  from,  xvi,  39, 61 ; 
conquest  of  Spain  by,  40,  41; 
trade  with  Guinea,  55,  59,  74.  *77, 
178 

Morros  da  Pcdra,  24 
Moslems,  92,  94,  97 
Mountains  of  the  Moon,  xx,  x6, 

*54. 

Murcia,  22 


Nam,  Cape,  2,  3,  23,  60,  63,  64,  65 
Nanuus,  river,  93 
Napoles  (Naples),  22 
Narbaa,  watering  place,  54,  55,  56 
Narbona,  22,  23 

Natural  History  (Pliny),  2,  xx,  16,  20, 
38.  39.  59.  04.  *40;  tee  also  Pliny, 
Caius 

Negro,  river  (Canagui,  river),  80 
Negro,  Cape,  24,  148 
Negro,  Monte,  147 
Negroes,  63,  174 


Nepos,  Cornelius,  141 
Neto,  Pedro  Gonyalves,  1x3 
Niebla,  22 

Niger,  river,  x  73-75;  see  also 
Canagui 

Nile,  river,  passim;  birth  and  course 
of,  xxi,  16,  80,  154;  delta  of, 
17  et  seq.;  description  of,  155 ;  Nile 
as  eastern  boundary  of  Africa, 
xx,  15;  Senegal-Niger-Nile  con¬ 
troversy,  173-75;  tee  also  Qanagui 
Noah,  24 

Non,  Cape ;  see  Nam,  Cape 
Noronha,  Fernao  de,  xxii 
North  America,  xxii,  xxiii,  xxxii 
Norvegia,  see  Norway 
Norway,  18,  22 
Nunes,  Pedro,  xxvi 
Nuno,  river,  93 

Ophir,  4 

Oporto,  23 

O  Porto  d’el  Rey,  37 

Opuu,  country  of,  X27 

Order  of  Christ,  61,  64,  75,  100,  163 

Order  of  Santiaguo,  165 

Order  of  S.  Bento,  52,  163 

Ortiz,  Diogo,  Bishop  of  Vizeu,  xiv 

Osorio,  Jeronimo,  xv 

Ouram  (Oram),  117 

Ouro,  river,  23,  68,  69,  70 

Pacheco,  Duarte,  birth  of,  xiii,  67, 
169 ;  public  life  of,  xiii  et  seq. ;  date 
of  his  Esmeraldo,  xvi,  xvii ;  his  debt 
to  tradition,  xix-xxiii ;  his  nautical 
rulings,  xxiv-xxviii ;  death  of,  xvi 
Pacheco,  Joao,  xiii 
Pacheco,  Joao  Fernando,  xvi 
Padram,  Cape,  24,  150 
Padram,  river,  xxv,  24,  X42,  143, 
*45 

Palencia,  23 
Palestine,  6 

Palma,  island ;  near  Cestos,  river,  no 
Palma,  island,  83 
Palma,  castle,  54 

Palmas,  Cape,  23,  113,  114,  X15,  117 

Palmas,  river,  106,  107 

Palude  Meotis,  15 

Pam  de  NSo  (Akem  Peak),  123 

Panplona,  22 

Papagia  (Brazil),  xxiii 

Paralipomenon,  5 

Paris,  22 

Parthia,  6 

Pasqualigo,  Pietro,  xxiii 
Patte,  79 


INDEX 


Pedras,  Point,  148 

Pedras,  coast  of,  1 50 

Pena  do  Cervo,  44 

Penedo  das  Fontes,  4,  159,  160 

Pepper,  108  et  seq.,  126,  127 

Pequeno,  river,  131 

Pereira,  Gabriel,  xxxi 

PerepinhS  (Perpignan),  22 

Persia,  6,  79.  156,  171 

Persian  Gulf,  6,  156 

Pescadores,  river,  93 

Philip,  Queen,  61 

Phoenicia,  6 

Pichel,  river,  93 

Pico,  island,  23 

Pina,  Ruy  de,  xxviii 

Pires,  Angra  de  Ruy,  148,  149 

Pires,  G.,  xiii 

Pisa,  22 

Pius  II,  Pope,  103,  104 
Pixotas,  fish,  54 

Plaso,  Cape  ( Prasum  Promontorium 
of  Ptolemy),  154 

Pliny,  Caius,  xx,  xxi,  2,  ir,  16,  20, 
38,  39.  59.  68,  84,  140,  165,  175, 
176 

Pole  Star,  38 
Porto  Real,  24 
Porto  Seguro,  24 

Portugal,  xi,  xxvi,  xxviii,  xxix, 
xxx,  12,  39.  60,  84,  88,  101,  120, 
131,  124,  141,  IS5,  163,  166,  168 
Portugal,  Aldea  de,  114 
Pory,  John,  174 
Pray  a,  Cape,  115 
Praya,  Point,  153 
Preta,  Point,  146-47 
Primeiras,  islands,  24 
Primeiro,  river,  124,  125 
Principe,  island;  see  S.  Antonio, 
island 
Psalter,  n 

Ptolemy,  xx,  xxi,  16,  17,  59,  15s, 
164,  174 

Quiloa,  24,  79 
Quynamo,  107 

Ramos,  river,  129,  130 
Raxete,  see  Canopus 
Real,  river,  13 1,  132 
Red  Sea,  73,  79 
Redes,  Cape,  122,  123 
Regimento,  xi,  xxv 
Reinel,  Rodrigo,  75 
Requena,  23 

Resguate  do  Genois,  ill 
Rico,  bay,  159,  160 


I9I 

Riphaean  Mts.,  15 
Rivara,  Sr.,  xxxi 
Rodes  (Rhodes),  21 
Rodizio,  the  device  of  King  Afonso  V, 
i°S 

Rodrigo,  King  of  Spain,  58 
Rodrigues,  J.,  xiii 
Roma,  see  Rome 
Romans,  168 
Rome,  5,  ax,  57 
Roteiro,  xii 
Roxo,  Cape,  90,  91 
Ruivos,  bay,  23,  67,  68,  169 


Sabuu,  122 

Sacrobosco,  John,  165 
Sagres,  bay,  61 
Sagres,  Cape,  94,  95 
Sagres,  School  of,  xii 
Sahara,  69,  74,  173-75 
S.  Agostinho,  Cape,  24 
S.  Amaro,  island,  24 
S.  Amaro,  bay,  149 
S.  Andr6,  river,  115 
S.  Angelo,  Cape,  23 
S.  Anna,  Cape,  23,  106 
S.  Anna,  bay,  105,  106 
S.  Antonio,  island  (Principe  island), 
3,  24,  84,  137 
St  Augustine,  50 
S.  Barbara,  island,  24 
S.  Barbara,  river,  13 1 
S.  Bento,  river,  13 1 
S.  Brandam,  Point,  156,  157 
S.  Bras,  bay  24,  157,  IS8,  159 
S.  Christova,  island,  24 
S.  Crara,  island,  24 
S.  Cremente,  river,  113 
S.  Cruz,  £5 

S.  Domingos,  river;  near  Cape 
Roxo,  91 

S.  Domingos,  river;  near  S.  Jorze 
da  Mina,  132 
S.  Elena,  bay,  24,  153 
S.  Francisco,  river,  24 
S.  Ilefonso,  river,  13 1 
S.  Joham,  river;  near  Arguim,  76 
S.  Joham,  river;  near  S.  Jorze  da 
Mina,  118 

S.  Jorze  da  Mina,  passim ;  establish¬ 
ment  of  factory,  1 19-20 ;  commerce 
at,  120-21 

S.  Louren^o,  island,  24 
S.  Louren^o,  Point,  146 
S.  Luzia,  island,  24 
S.  Luzia,  Point,  24 
S.  Luzia,  river,  24 
S.  Maria,  forest  of,  108 


INDEX 


I92 

S.  Maria,  shallows  of,  87 
S.  Maria,  bay ;  near  Cape  Branco,  71 
S.  Maria,  bay ;  near  Pont*  Preta,  146 
S.  Maria  da  Vitoria  da  Batalha, 
monasters’,  64,  iox,  161 
S.  Maria  d’Arabida,  24 
S.  Martha,  Point,  24 
S.  Miguel,  island,  23 
S.  Miguel,  watering  place,  24 
S.  Nicolao,  island,  24,  84 
S.  Paulo  Mts.,  109 
S.  Paulo,  Cape,  123 
S.  Paulo,  river,  108,  109 
S.  Pedro,  river,  115 
S.  Roque,  24 
S.  Roque,  Cape,  xvii 
S.  Sebastiam,  Cape,  24 
S.  Thiago  de  Cabo  Verde,  island,  23 
S.  Thom6,  bay,  24 
S.  Thom6,  island,  3,  24,  136,  137 
S.  Thomas,  Apostle,  5,  168 
S.  Vincente,  Cape,  23,  53,  59.  61 
S.  Vincente,  island,  24,  84 
S.  Vincente,  river,  m,  112,  113 
Sal,  island,  24 
Salado,  battle  of,  44,  50 
Salamanca,  22 
Salt ,  74,  176-78 
Samoa,  town,  118,  119 
Samuri,  xiv 
Santarem,  22 
Santarem,  Jo  ham  de,  118 
Santiago,  island,  64,  84,  8s 
Santiaguo,  Santiago  de  Compos¬ 
tela,  22 

Sanutus  (Sanuto),  174 
Saraguoca,  23 
Sardcnha  (Sardinia),  21 
Satyrs,  98 

Savecs,  river,  51,  S2 
Scilly  Islands,  see  Sorlingua 
Scythia,  see  Cithas 
Seem,  Cape,  53 
Scguovca,  22 
Sena,  22 

Senegal,  river ;  see  £anagui ,  river 
SerxmL  37 
Scrra  Bota,  135 
Serra  de  Brapam,  95 
Serra  de  Fernam  do  Poo,  133,  134 
Serra  Guerreira,  24,  134,  135 
Serra  Lyoa,  2,  3,  21,  93.  105,  106, 
108 ;  discovery  and  description  of, 
96  et  seq. 

Serra  da  Pena,  152 

Serra  dc  S.  Apolonia,  116,  1 17,  118 

Serra  da  Ximeira,  35,  36 

Seu,  desert  of,  174 


Sevilha,  22,  50 

Shem,  son  of  Noah,  14 

Sheppard,  Dr  George,  xviii 

Sicily,  see  Cezilia 

Siena,  see  Sena 

Sierra  Leone,  see  Serra  Lyoa 

Silla,  173  ,  «  , 

Silva,  Luciano  Pereira  da,  xviii 
Singuyty,  village  of,  75 
Sintra,  Pero  de,  98,  132 
Sintra,  town  of,  105 
Siqueyra,  Ruy  de,  138 
Sixtus  IV,  Pope,  2 
Snakes,  82,  137,  I75“76 
Soeyro,  Da  Costa,  116 
Soeyro,  river,  116 
Sofala,  see  Cofala 
Solinus,  175 
Solomon,  King,  5,  139 
Soria,  22 
Sorlingua,  23 
Souzos,  Negro  tribe,  120 
Spain,  xviii,  xxvi,  xxvii,  7,  30,  32,  36, 
50.  98 

Strabo,  Marcus,  of  Cappadocia, 
xx,  xxi,  1,  176 
Subou,  country  of,  129 
Sudan,  173,  174,  175,  176,  177.  *78 
Suecia,  22 
Sutucoo,  87,  88 
Sweden,  see  Suecia 

Tacrour,  173 

Tafcineh,  see  Tafetana 

Tafetana,  53 

Taguaost,  60 

Tauveira,  22 

Tamara,  river,  95,  96 

Tambucutu,  74,  80,  81,  174,  175 

Tanais,  river,  xx,  15,  16,  19 

Tanger,  xvi,  x 9,  22,  37,  38,  39,  104 

Tangier,  see  Tanger 

Tanguarim,  96 

Taragona,  23 

Tara  mate,  castle,  54 

Tarifa,  44 

Taurus  (Zodiac),  84 

Tedenez,  51 

Teebuu,  125 

Tefinete,  56 

Tenez,  1x7 

Ter^a  Naval,  61 

Terceira  of  the  Azores,  island,  23 
Terra  Alta,  68 

Teymenes,  Negro  tribe,  96,  97 
Teza,  47 
Themicinaa,  42 
Thomar,  town  of,  75 


INDEX 


193 


Thracian  Straits,  15 

Tifil  Felti,  43 

Timbuktu,  see  Tambucutu 

Tingitania,  19,  36,  155 

Tingy,  see  Tanger 

Todolos  Santos,  bay,  24 

Tofla,  Point,  76 

Toledo,  22 

Tolosa  (Toulouse),  22 

Toom,  89 

Tordelaguna,  23 

Torre  do  Tombo,  3 

Torre  Laguna,  see  Tordelaguna 

Torto,  village  of,  119 

Tortosa,  22 

Touro,  22 

Trap  ana,  23 

Trcmecem,  46,  56,  117 

Tres  Pontas,  Cape,  116,  117,  118 

Tripoli  of  Berbery,  81,  155 

Tripoli  of  Soria,  81 

Trogouditas,  Ethiopias  of,  155 

Trosilho,  22 

Trujillo,  see  Trosilho 

Tucuroees,  Negro  tribe,  97 

Tucurol,  Kingdom  of,  80,  81 

Tucurumu,  castle,  54 

Tullius,  Marcus,  7 

Tunez,  see  Tunis 

Tunis,  81,  117 

Turks,  103 

Turucuco,  castle,  54 

Turulo,  island,  100 

Tyciguonc,  60 

Tynyguuhy,  village  of,  75 

Tyty,  48 

Ugueer,  see  Casa  do  Cavaleiro 
Ultima  Thylle,  8 


Ushant,  see  Hoexante 
Vacas,  Cape,  157 

Valen^a  (Valencia),  in  the  province 
of  the  same  name,  23 
Valen^a  (Valencia),  in  the  province 
of  Cdceres,  22 
Valhadolid,  22 
Venetians,  168 
Vencza  (Venice),  22 
Verde,  Cape,  23,  72,  77,  78,  80,  83, 
84.  85,  86,  90,  91,  96,  99,  169, 
170 

Verga,  Cape,  23,  93,  94 
Verona,  22 

Vespucci,  Amerigo,  xxii 
Viana  (Vienne  in  Dauphin 6),  22 
Villena  (Vilhana),  22 
Vincent  of  Beauvais,  xxi,  13 
Virgil,  8 
Vitoria,  22 

Volta,  river,  23,  123,  177 
Voltas,  bay,  24,  152 

Wadi  Mesa,  see  Tefinete 
Wadi  Tensift,  see  Savees,  river 

Xamez,  40 
Xarquya,  47 
Xaul,  23 
Xio,  island,  23 

Ydamen,  lake,  74,  75 

Zebiliquy,  bay,  53 
Zeguebos,  109 
Zodiac,  sign  of,  27 
Zurara,  Eannes  de,  xii,  xxviii,  xxx, 
175 


CAMBRIDGE:  PRINTED  BY  WALTER  LEWIS,  M.A.,  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 


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Catalogue  No.SIu.  4/?er/Ki  i».  -  L^  -» 


Author—3 Pereira ,  Dusrte 


Data  of  Return 


Borrower  No. 


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